The 19th century has been thought to be the turning point that the experimental method bean to take strong root as the core to solve many physiological subjects, and discipline of physiology got firmly fixed as the specialized one in the western Europe. Authors found of physiology got firmly fixed as the specialized one in the western Europe. Authors found the following characteristics in the process of the division and specialization of the 19th century western physiology. 1) It was the process of its separation from the discipline of anatomy that was necessary in the development of physiology as the independent, specialized division. Newly grown ideas, that there were working functions specialized study, were the important background and basis of the development of physiology as the specialized discipline. 2) It was not until the force and influence of the metaphysical concept on the living things(vitalism) grew weak that physiology could become the specialized discipline. The new materialistic concept about living things made it possible for the researchers of that time to apply the physico-chemical method in the study of physiological problems. 3) Institutionalization of the physiological research and education accelerated its development and specialization. The followings appeared in the mid-19th century: specialized professorship, division as the separated subject in the undergraduated medical school curriculum, laboratory settings for the purpose of physiological study, establishment of independent academic societies and publication of their own journals. Two main factors, namely, both the settlement of the new physiological thought and method of the very scientific nature and the institutionalization within the academic and medical societies exerted influences on each other in the ground of the 19th century western Europe. Through that process, the discipline of physiology took root deep as the independent specialized division in the societies of science and medicine.
English Abstract ; Europe ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Physiology/*history ; Science/history ; Specialties, Medical/*history

The talk traces briefly the development and changes of surgical training in the English-speaking world in the early days and the trials and tribulations of surgical training in Singapore a few decades ago. The factors that brought about the surge of American surgery from late 19th century to the first half of the 20th century are discussed. Structured surgical training leading to the exit point was introduced by William Halsted of Johns Hopkins Hospital around 1892, a system that was later adopted by all other medical disciplines and by all other hospitals in the US. It is considered to be the prime mover of the rapid progress of American medicine. Training surgeons to only the entry point while leaving the competence of trainees to chance, used to be common in the British surgical world. The trend now favours surgical training to the exit point. It is also the system being adopted in Singapore. Increasing demands of high standard of patient care and public accountability no longer allow us to be casual and permissive mentors of future generations of surgeons. Proper surgical upbringing requires a good structured programme that itself needs to be accredited and periodically reviewed. It also requires that discipline be observed on the part of trainees. Knowledge and skills are within the capability of our mentors to impart, but inculcation of good attitude and ethics in trainees is a harder goal to achieve.
Attitude ; Education, Medical ; history ; trends ; General Surgery ; education ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; Singapore ; Specialties, Surgical ; United Kingdom ; United States