This study focused its investigation on esoteric Buddhist treatment methods during Goryeo. In Goryeo, they published dharani scriptures related to illness. Beomseo-chongji-jip (梵書摠持集), a collection of dharanis, contains few dharanis for treatment. The publication of a dharani scripture was a precondition of dharani-based Buddhist prayers. There had been cases of treating illness through Buddhist prayers based on a dharani since ancient times, and Hyetong (惠通) of Samgukyusa (三國遺事) is a good example. The religious sect of esoteric Buddhism that inherited the line of Hyetong in Goryeo was Chongji-jong (摠持宗), which seems to have been partially responsible for royal medicine and engaged in relief activities for people to end an infectious disease. During the period of Yuan (元)’s interventions, Yeom Seung-ik (廉承益) became a favorite of the king for his ability of treating illness through his spells. He was not a Buddhist monk, and his case reflects the wide spread of disease-treating spells among common people those days.
The establishment of a ritual was one of the traditional therapies. In Goryeo, various esoteric Buddhist rituals were held for therapeutic purposes. Marijicheon-doryang (摩利支天道場), Gongjakwang-doryang (孔雀王道場), and Buljeongsim-doryang (佛頂心道場) were established to expel infectious diseases, and Sojae-doryang (消災道場) and Boseong-doryang (寶星道場) were established to treat the illness of kings and queens. They were intended to treat illness by eliminating the causes of epidemics and diseases by the virtue of dharanis.
Esoteric Buddhist therapies containing Taoist elements were also developed. The utilization of Eight-Gate Transformation (奇門遁甲) and talismans are the exampels. In early Joseon, Buddhist monks of Chongji-jong were said to have contributed to the treatment of diseases by using Eight-Gate Transformation. They were used to predict a good direction for the treatment of a patient. This practice of Chongji-jong Buddhist monks in early Joseon seems to have inherited the heritage of Goryeo, which suggests that Eight-Gate Transformation was one of the therapies practiced by esoteric Buddhist monks in Goryeo. Talismans are commonly known to be used in Taoism and shamanism, but Buddhist scriptures, especially esoteric Buddhist scriptures, contain a variety of talismans. Buljeongsim-darani-gyeong has talismans on its last page and records that one can treat his or her illness by burning the talisman and taking its ash. This therapy proposed by this scripture seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in Goryeo, when its simplified versions comprised only of dharani phrases and talismans were made.
These various esoteric Buddhist therapies demonstrate that human beings made utmost efforts to overcome their personal and social crises. Therapies are a total reflection of a society’s contemporary politics, religion, ideas, and culture. Esoteric Buddhist therapies may seem like superstitions in the eyes of modern people, but they must have been reliable treatment methods whose efficacy was guaranteed within the thinking system of people during Goryeo.

This study focused its investigation on esoteric Buddhist treatment methods during Goryeo. In Goryeo, they published dharani scriptures related to illness. Beomseo-chongji-jip (梵書摠持集), a collection of dharanis, contains few dharanis for treatment. The publication of a dharani scripture was a precondition of dharani-based Buddhist prayers. There had been cases of treating illness through Buddhist prayers based on a dharani since ancient times, and Hyetong (惠通) of Samgukyusa (三國遺事) is a good example. The religious sect of esoteric Buddhism that inherited the line of Hyetong in Goryeo was Chongji-jong (摠持宗), which seems to have been partially responsible for royal medicine and engaged in relief activities for people to end an infectious disease. During the period of Yuan (元)’s interventions, Yeom Seung-ik (廉承益) became a favorite of the king for his ability of treating illness through his spells. He was not a Buddhist monk, and his case reflects the wide spread of disease-treating spells among common people those days.
The establishment of a ritual was one of the traditional therapies. In Goryeo, various esoteric Buddhist rituals were held for therapeutic purposes. Marijicheon-doryang (摩利支天道場), Gongjakwang-doryang (孔雀王道場), and Buljeongsim-doryang (佛頂心道場) were established to expel infectious diseases, and Sojae-doryang (消災道場) and Boseong-doryang (寶星道場) were established to treat the illness of kings and queens. They were intended to treat illness by eliminating the causes of epidemics and diseases by the virtue of dharanis.
Esoteric Buddhist therapies containing Taoist elements were also developed. The utilization of Eight-Gate Transformation (奇門遁甲) and talismans are the exampels. In early Joseon, Buddhist monks of Chongji-jong were said to have contributed to the treatment of diseases by using Eight-Gate Transformation. They were used to predict a good direction for the treatment of a patient. This practice of Chongji-jong Buddhist monks in early Joseon seems to have inherited the heritage of Goryeo, which suggests that Eight-Gate Transformation was one of the therapies practiced by esoteric Buddhist monks in Goryeo. Talismans are commonly known to be used in Taoism and shamanism, but Buddhist scriptures, especially esoteric Buddhist scriptures, contain a variety of talismans. Buljeongsim-darani-gyeong has talismans on its last page and records that one can treat his or her illness by burning the talisman and taking its ash. This therapy proposed by this scripture seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in Goryeo, when its simplified versions comprised only of dharani phrases and talismans were made.
These various esoteric Buddhist therapies demonstrate that human beings made utmost efforts to overcome their personal and social crises. Therapies are a total reflection of a society’s contemporary politics, religion, ideas, and culture. Esoteric Buddhist therapies may seem like superstitions in the eyes of modern people, but they must have been reliable treatment methods whose efficacy was guaranteed within the thinking system of people during Goryeo.

PURPOSE: School meal programs should be part of the educational process to promote good eating habits for students. The purpose of this study was to develop an evaluation scale for educational school meal programs and evaluate the achievement level of educational school meal programs using the developed scale. METHODS: The evaluation scale for educational school meal programs consisted of 23 items in eight categories and was developed using content validity ratio (CVR) analysis and analytic hierarchy process (AHP) by 15 related experts. The results of a survey on nutrition teachers or dietitians at 91 elementary, middle, and high schools in Gyeonggi province, South Korea were analyzed to evaluate the achievement levels of educational school meal programs. RESULTS: Overall, total average score was 45.7 out of 100, with significant differences among schools (p = 0.005). Elementary schools (51.9) showed a higher average score than middle (41.5) and high schools (37.1). The score for the category of regular nutrition and dietary education was the lowest (5.7 out of 33.7). In addition, school meal environment (5 out of 10), educational activities through school meal time (9.2 out of 19), and extra-curricular experiential activities (3.5 out of 10) also showed inadequate levels. CONCLUSION: The results show that the overall level of educational school meal programs is not adequate and needs to be improved, especially at middle and high schools. Government support polices need to be implemented to encourage educational activities related to school meal programs.
Eating ; Education ; Gyeonggi-do* ; Humans ; Korea* ; Meals* ; Nutritionists

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: School meals are not just meals consumed at school, they are part of the culture, education, and life experience at school. Nevertheless, few studies have revealed the influence of school meals on students' school lives. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of satisfaction with the school meal program on students' school happiness. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A survey conducted in December 2015 asked 2,336 students (1,062 elementary school students, 880 middle school students, and 394 high school students) about their satisfaction with the school meal program and their school happiness. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relation between the students' school meal satisfaction and their happiness level. RESULTS: The average level of satisfaction with school meals of elementary school students was 4.1 out of 5 points, comparatively higher than that of middle and high school students, with a significant difference between school levels (P < 0.001). In addition, school happiness, as well as overall happiness, of elementary school students was higher than that of middle and high school students (P < 0.001). The school meal operation factor (0.232, P < 0.001) had the most influence on students' school happiness, followed by the school meal environment factor (0.219, P < 0.001) and school meal quality factor (0.136, P < 0.001). Overall satisfaction (0.097, P = 0.001) and school meal hygiene factor (0.095, P = 0.001) also had significant influences on students' school happiness. CONCLUSIONS: Students' satisfaction with the school meal program was related to their school happiness. Therefore, plans to enhance students' satisfaction with a school meal program needs to be implemented, with emphasis on placing a priority on school meal operation and school environment factors, in order to improve students' level of happiness.
Education ; Happiness* ; Humans ; Hygiene ; Korea* ; Life Change Events ; Meals*

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the importance and performance level of sodium reduction practices in school meal service by school nutrition teachers and dietitians, and compared them according to school level and placement of the school nutrition teacher. SUBJECTS/METHODS: An online survey was conducted with 608 nutrition teachers and dietitians in schools in the Republic of Korea from September 28 to November 12, 2021 (response rate: 57%). The questionnaire comprised 11 items related to sodium reduction practices (purchasing, food preparation and serving, and education). The importance and performance level of each item was rated on a 5-point scale. The mean differences were analyzed using t-tests or one-way analyses of variance and Duncan’s post-hoc tests. An importance-performance analysis was performed on sodium reduction practices. RESULTS: Participating in sodium reduction education, sodium reduction education for cooks, and sodium reduction education for students were assessed to have high importance but low performance. Overall, the higher the school level, the lower was the importance level of sodium reduction practices. The performance in kindergartens and elementary schools was higher than that in middle and high schools. The importance in the purchasing category perceived by dietitians was lower as compared to nutrition teachers. In addition, the performance in the purchasing, food preparation and serving, and education categories perceived by dietitians was lower than those of nutrition teachers. CONCLUSION Sodium reduction education for nutrition teachers and dietitians, cooks, and students should prioritize practicing sodium reduction in school meal service. Specific guidelines for managing sodium reduction at all stages—purchasing, food preparation, and serving—should also be developed. The results could be used as basic data to reduce the sodium content in school meals.

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the foodservice management support program focusing on menu management in community child centers. The support program provided reference menus, staff training, and field consulting to 10 community child centers in the Jeollanam-do province for one month, August in 2010. One month menus were developed, based on children's preference for menu items, foodservice personnel's preference for food materials, and availability of local specialty foods, and offered as reference menus. In addition, staff training and field consulting focusing on menu management were conducted before and during the pilot period, respectively. To evaluate the support program, menus, foodservice personnel's knowledge level and perceived performance in foodservice management, and children's level of satisfaction for foodservice were analyzed before and after the support program. As a result of analysis of 222 and 210 menus of before and after the support program, respectively, the number of dishes per meal increased from five to six on average, and the proportion of meals including five food groups, which were grain, meat, vegetable, fruit, and milk and dairy product, rose from 2% to 24%. Foodservice personnel's knowledge level regarding foodservice management increased significantly (p = 0.007), however, their perceived performance in foodservice management did not show any significant changes. Children were more satisfied with 'food' (p = 0.001), 'sanitation' (p = 0.001), and 'environment' (p < 0.008) of foodservice in community child centers after the support program. In conclusion, the foodservice management support program focusing on menu management in this study was effective for improving menu quality of and children's satisfaction with foodservice in community child centers.
Edible Grain ; Child ; Dairy Products ; Fruit ; Humans ; Korea ; Meals ; Meat ; Milk ; Vegetables

The purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of food service management in the restaurants participating in the government-funded children's meal program during summer vacation. A mail survey was conducted with individuals who worked in the restaurants participating in the government-funded children's meal program in Seoul during the summer vacation in 2010. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed to 274 Chinese, 235 Bunsik and 91 Korean restaurants, which were selected using proportionate stratified sampling by regions and types of operations. A total of 138 usable questionnaires (23.0%) were returned and analyzed. The results showed that over half (57.2%) of the restaurants did not employ any certified cooks. Most of the restaurants (97.8%) provided side dishes; among them, only 42% planned menus for side dishes in advance and only a half changed side dish menus periodically. The suggested reasonable reimbursement rate per meal for children using restaurants differed by types of restaurants; the percentage of restaurants having responded 5,000 won or higher was the highest in Chinese restaurants. This study revealed that food service in the restaurants participating in the government-funded children's meal program was not properly managed during summer vacation, especially in terms of menu and food production. This study also showed that the suggested reasonable reimbursement rate of meals for children using restaurants differed by types of restaurants, implying that adjusting the reimbursement rate according to types of restaurants should be considered in the government-funded children's meal program.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Child ; Food Services ; Humans ; Korea ; Meals ; Postal Service ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Restaurants

Children have dynamic process of maturation and substantial changes in growth and development which eventually make the drug safety profiles different from adults. Medication errors (MEs) in pediatrics are reported to occur three times more likely than adults. The aims of this study were to identify the characteristics of pediatric MEs in Korea at national level and help raise awareness of risks from the MEs in pediatrics. We conducted a descriptive analysis with the pediatric ME reports in Korea Adverse Event Reporting System (KAERS) database from 1989 to 2012 and 208 ME reports in pediatrics were found. Based on KAERS database, the proportion of reported pediatric ME in adverse drug event (ADE) reports was 2.73 times (95% CI, 2.35-3.17) higher than that of adult ME. In 208 ME reports, we found a total of 236 ME-related terms within 19 types of MEs. The most common type of MEs was "accidental overdose" (n = 58, 24.6%), followed by "drug maladministration" (n = 50, 21.2%) and "medication error" (n = 41, 17.4%). After the narratives of ME reports were reviewed, we noticed that most of them did no harm to patients, but some cases were needed for medical treatment. Our data suggest that MEs in pediatrics are not negligible in Korea. We expect that this study would increase the awareness of the problem in pediatric MEs and induce the need for further development of an effective national ME preventing system in Korea.
Adult ; *Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting Systems ; Child ; *Databases, Factual ; Humans ; Medication Errors/*statistics & numerical data ; Republic of Korea/epidemiology ; Time Factors

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: To encourage schools to transform school meal programs to be more educational, it is necessary to evaluate the related environment using a whole school approach. We developed a school food culture evaluation tool to quantitatively evaluate school food culture in Gyeonggi Province, Korea. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Based on a literature review, a school food culture evaluation system consisting of areas, subareas, indicators, and questions (scored on a 5-point scale) was constructed. The validity of the tool was reviewed using focus group interviews, the Delphi technique, and a preliminary survey. Subsequently, evaluation tool was applied to elementary, middle, and high schools in Gyeonggi Province. Data from 115 schools were used for the final analysis. This included 64 elementary schools, 29 middle schools, and 22 high schools. At least one respondent from each group—school administrators, teachers, and nutrition teachers (or dietitians)—participated. The results were compared at the school level. RESULTS: The evaluation tool consisted of 66 questions in 5 areas (institutional environment, physical environment, educational environment, educational governance, and school meal quality). The total average score for school food culture was 3.83 points (elementary school 3.89 points, middle school 3.76 points, and high school 3.76 points) and did not differ significantly among school levels. Among the 5 evaluation areas, scores were highest for institutional environment (4.43 points) and lowest for physical environment (3.07 points).Scores for educational environment, educational governance, and school meal quality were 3.86, 3.85, and 3.97 points, respectively. CONCLUSION It is necessary to improve the physical environment to create a desirable school food culture in Gyeonggi Province. To effectively promote healthy eating, ongoing investment and interventions by local authorities at improving school food culture are needed, with an emphasis on particular factors, such as the eating environment and staff training.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: To encourage schools to transform school meal programs to be more educational, it is necessary to evaluate the related environment using a whole school approach. We developed a school food culture evaluation tool to quantitatively evaluate school food culture in Gyeonggi Province, Korea. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Based on a literature review, a school food culture evaluation system consisting of areas, subareas, indicators, and questions (scored on a 5-point scale) was constructed. The validity of the tool was reviewed using focus group interviews, the Delphi technique, and a preliminary survey. Subsequently, evaluation tool was applied to elementary, middle, and high schools in Gyeonggi Province. Data from 115 schools were used for the final analysis. This included 64 elementary schools, 29 middle schools, and 22 high schools. At least one respondent from each group—school administrators, teachers, and nutrition teachers (or dietitians)—participated. The results were compared at the school level. RESULTS: The evaluation tool consisted of 66 questions in 5 areas (institutional environment, physical environment, educational environment, educational governance, and school meal quality). The total average score for school food culture was 3.83 points (elementary school 3.89 points, middle school 3.76 points, and high school 3.76 points) and did not differ significantly among school levels. Among the 5 evaluation areas, scores were highest for institutional environment (4.43 points) and lowest for physical environment (3.07 points).Scores for educational environment, educational governance, and school meal quality were 3.86, 3.85, and 3.97 points, respectively. CONCLUSION It is necessary to improve the physical environment to create a desirable school food culture in Gyeonggi Province. To effectively promote healthy eating, ongoing investment and interventions by local authorities at improving school food culture are needed, with an emphasis on particular factors, such as the eating environment and staff training.