In his influential treatise System einer vollstandigen medizinischen Polizey, Johann Peter Frank(1745-1821) made significant contributions to the establishment of the concept of medical police, which has been understood as the forerunner of social medicine. Cameralism, the German version of mercantilism, became the very basis on which Frank and other German writers developed the framework of medical police. 'Medical reform' was the catchword of German medical men in the 1840s. The medical reform movement of 1848 was partially caused by a deep political, economic, and social crisis. Although Industrial Revolution began in Germany later than in England and France during the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1848 the formation of German industrial working-class made medical reformers recognize the causal relationships between social and health problems. The outstanding figures in the German medical reform movement of this period were Rudolf Virchow(1821-1902), Solomon Neumann and Rudolf Leubuscher. In his famous Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia, Virchow proposed several radical measures that could be used against the epidemic: the absolute separation of the schools from the church, the establishment of self-government in the state and community, unlimited democracy, road building, and the improvement of agriculture and horticulture. The progressive German medical reformers of the 1840s held to several principles through their action for the enhancement of public hygiene: (1) the health of the people is a matter of direct social concern, (2) social and economic conditions have an important effect on health and disease, (3) steps taken to promote health and to combat disease must be social as well as medical. The 1848 Revolution was defeated. To most Germans after 1870s, the 1848 movement was something from a strange past. The German intellectuals and the middle class accepted social policy of Bismarck. As Bismarck launched national health insurance in 1883, more emphasis in social medicine was given on better health care rather than on social hygiene. The ideologically-oriented social medicine of 1848 was transformed into more administrative one and began to include the insurance concept in health care.
English Abstract ; Germany ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Public Health/*history ; Social Medicine/*history

In his influential treatise System einer vollstandigen medizinischen Polizey, Johann Peter Frank(1745-1821) made significant contributions to the establishment of the concept of medical police, which has been understood as the forerunner of social medicine. Cameralism, the German version of mercantilism, became the very basis on which Frank and other German writers developed the framework of medical police. 'Medical reform' was the catchword of German medical men in the 1840s. The medical reform movement of 1848 was partially caused by a deep political, economic, and social crisis. Although Industrial Revolution began in Germany later than in England and France during the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1848 the formation of German industrial working-class made medical reformers recognize the causal relationships between social and health problems. The outstanding figures in the German medical reform movement of this period were Rudolf Virchow(1821-1902), Solomon Neumann and Rudolf Leubuscher. In his famous Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia, Virchow proposed several radical measures that could be used against the epidemic: the absolute separation of the schools from the church, the establishment of self-government in the state and community, unlimited democracy, road building, and the improvement of agriculture and horticulture. The progressive German medical reformers of the 1840s held to several principles through their action for the enhancement of public hygiene: (1) the health of the people is a matter of direct social concern, (2) social and economic conditions have an important effect on health and disease, (3) steps taken to promote health and to combat disease must be social as well as medical. The 1848 Revolution was defeated. To most Germans after 1870s, the 1848 movement was something from a strange past. The German intellectuals and the middle class accepted social policy of Bismarck. As Bismarck launched national health insurance in 1883, more emphasis in social medicine was given on better health care rather than on social hygiene. The ideologically-oriented social medicine of 1848 was transformed into more administrative one and began to include the insurance concept in health care.
English Abstract ; Germany ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Public Health/*history ; Social Medicine/*history

Dr Yoo Suk-Chang(1900-1972) has been praised for his contribution to the development of the Korean society as an educator and an agricultural reformer as well as a physician. This paper describes his medical career mainly his contribution to establish and administrate the Min-Jung Hospital(The People's Hospital) and publish a medical paper entitled Bokun Sibo(The Doctors' News) in the Colonial Period I appreciate such his effort as the embodiment of his idea "medical care for the people" and the medical reform in that period I think his services as a physician correspond well with the activities against Japanese imperialism in his early age and the contribution to the education and agricultural reform in his late age. I stress that his medical achievement should not be supposed to be only his own because it is not possible without the help of all his supporter-colleagues and the people.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Physicians/*history ; Social Change/*history

This study considers the social class and social role of the entering students of Jejoongwon at that time in light of its very first medical graduate, Kyum-Rae Lee. Foremost, Kyum-Rae Lee was confirmed to have been from a middle-class family. However, unlike other chungin-class families, his family belonged to the minority. He seemed to have entered medical school to seek opportunity to move up in social class by taking advantage of special government provisions, which allowed him to learn English and Western medicine. Afterwards, he performed heroic services in the peasant-war, proceeded up to administration and participated in the modernization of Great Han Empire. With his knowledge of Western concepts, he became involved in numerous social activities, such as organizing the Enlightenment Society and leading the Enlightenment Movement. In much the same way, most early students were from low-class background with exceptional personal abilities and were able to pass aptitude examinations. Such achievements allowed them to apply for positions in the military and administrative management. Ten years later, medical education to train medical professionals was revived with changes in attitudes of people of Chosun Dynasty toward Western medicine and with creation of formal medical study.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, Modern ; Korea ; *Social Class ; Students, Medical/*history ; Western World/*history

The modernization strategy of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been implemented for 20 years, which has provided a strong impetus to the development of TCM and gained remarkable achievements in scientific research platform, research result, industry scale, clinical evaluation, internationalization and professionals training as well. The achievements of TCM modernization greatly improved the clinical service ability and level of TCM, broadened the scope of service, become the important foundation of the big health industry. TCM has played an irreplaceable role in the health care reform, benefiting people's livelihood, promoting industrial structure adjustment and cultivating strategic emerging industries. This article summarized the main achievements of the modernization of TCM and prospected the direction and tasks in the next 20 years in order to further promote the modernization process of TCM.
Biomedical Research ; history ; standards ; trends ; China ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; history ; standards ; trends ; Social Change ; history

What is medical professionalism and does it matter to the patients? Medical professionals take responsibility for their judgements and the consequences that ensue. Traditionally medical professionalism is defined as a set of values, behaviors, and relationships which support the trust the public has in doctors. The public is well aware that absence of professionalism is harmful to their interests. However, the exercise of medical professionalism is endangered by the political and cultural environment. The values of professionalism have been changed throughout the medical history and the meaning of it was also changed according to social theories. Traditional medical professionalism was based on the virtue of autonomy, self-regulation and competency etc. However, in the new millenium era, the meaning of professionalism has changed under the concept of responsibility which includes the classical virtues. The meaning of professionalism nowadays is only based on the structure and conflicting theories which cannot solve all the issues surrounding professionalism in medical practice. The conditions of medical practice are critical determinants for the future of professionalism. The interaction between doctor and patient is central to the medical care, and medical professionalism has roots in almost every aspect of medical care. I argue that doctors have responsibility to act according to the values which have been determined by the medical profession, history and surrounding society. The new millennium medical professionalism which based on the responsibility could initiate a public dialogue about the role of the doctor in creating a fairer society.
Ethics, Medical ; History of Medicine ; Humans ; Physician-Patient Relations ; *Professionalism ; Social Responsibility