1.Olfactory Receptors Expressed in The Intestine and Their Functions
Pei-Wen YANG ; Meng-Meng YUAN ; Ying ZHOU ; Peng LI ; Gui-Hong QI ; Ying YANG ; Zhong-Yi MAO ; Meng-Sha ZHOU ; Xiao-Shuang MAO ; Jian-Ping XIE ; Yi-Nan YANG ; Shi-Hao SUN
Progress in Biochemistry and Biophysics 2026;53(3):534-549
Olfactory receptors (ORs) form the largest superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Traditionally recognized for their role in the nasal olfactory epithelium, where they mediate the sense of smell, accumulating evidence has firmly established their ectopic expression in non-olfactory tissues, including the intestine, lungs, and kidneys. The intestine, as the primary site for nutrient digestion and absorption, harbors a highly complex chemical environment. To adapt to this environment, the gut employs a sophisticated network of “chemosensors” to monitor luminal contents and maintain homeostasis. Among these sensors, intestinal ORs have emerged as crucial functional components, serving as a molecular bridge that connects environmental chemical signals—such as food-derived odorants—to specific physiological responses. This discovery has significantly deepened our understanding of how dietary flavors and compounds influence intestinal physiology at the molecular level. This review systematically summarizes the expression profiles, ligand classification, and biological functions of ORs within the gastrointestinal tract. Studies indicate that intestinal ORs exhibit distinct spatial distribution patterns across different gut segments and display cell-type specificity, particularly within enterocytes and enteroendocrine cells. These receptors function as versatile sensors capable of recognizing a wide variety of ligands, including exogenous dietary components, gut microbiota metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids, and endogenous small molecules like azelaic acid. Upon activation by specific ligands, intestinal ORs trigger intracellular signaling cascades, primarily involving the AC-cAMP-PKA pathway or calcium influx channels. A major focus of this review is to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which these receptors regulate the secretion of gut hormones. Activation of specific ORs in enteroendocrine cells has been shown to stimulate the release of hormones such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY), and serotonin (5-HT), thereby modulating systemic energy metabolism, glucose homeostasis, and gastrointestinal motility. Furthermore, the review addresses the critical roles of ORs in immune regulation and pathology. Evidence suggests that specific ORs contribute to the maintenance of intestinal immune homeostasis and may offer protection against inflammation. Beyond their involvement in inflammatory responses, ORs such as Olfr78 have been shown to regulate the differentiation and function of intestinal endocrine cells. Similarly, Olfr544 has been demonstrated to alleviate intestinal inflammation by remodeling the gut microbiome and metabolome. These findings collectively suggest that specific ORs hold promise as therapeutic targets for mitigating intestinal inflammation and maintaining gut homeostasis. Additionally, the review explores the emerging role of ORs in cancer. Although OR expression is often downregulated in tumor tissues compared to normal mucosa, activation of specific ORs by certain ligands can inhibit tumor cell proliferation and migration and induce apoptosis via pathways such as MEK/ERK and p38 MAPK. Conversely, other receptors, such as OR7C1, may serve as biomarkers for cancer-initiating cells. In conclusion, intestinal ORs represent a vital component of the gut’s sensory network. The review also discusses the translational potential of these findings. By elucidating the precise pairing relationships between dietary components and specific ORs, novel therapeutic strategies could be developed. Intestinal ORs may thus emerge as promising targets for nutritional and pharmacological interventions in metabolic diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, and malignancies.
2.Clinical Efficacy and Economic Evaluation of 1293 Non-Severe Adult Patients with Community-Acquired Pneumonia Treated by the Jiangsu Traditional Chinese Medicine Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Dominant Diseases:A Multicenter,Retrospective Real-World Cohort Study
Ye MA ; Yeqing JI ; Zhichao WANG ; Fanchao FENG ; Mingzhi PU ; Hong LYU ; Xiaodong HU ; Gaohua FENG ; Xiaoqian FANG ; Guicai ZHANG ; Yanfen TANG ; Yeqing ZHANG ; Yao ZHUFU ; Wenpan PENG ; Hao WANG ; Cheng GU ; Zhichao ZHANG ; Shuang YANG ; Xinyu SUN ; Qi ZHAO ; Aojie GUO ; Xin TONG ; Zhuoyue WU ; Xiaoxiao WANG ; Jia LIU ; Hailang HE ; Xianmei ZHOU
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2026;67(9):966-974
ObjectiveTo evaluate the clinical efficacy and economic value of the Jiangsu Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Dominant Diseases (abbreviated as the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol) in adult patients with non-severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) based on real-world clinical data. MethodsA retrospective real-world cohort study was conducted using electronic medical records of adult patients hospitalized for non-severe CAP from September 1st, 2023 to December 31st, 2024 across 10 TCM hospitals in Jiangsu province. Patients were classified into an exposure group and a non-exposure group based on whether they received Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) according to the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol. The non-exposure group received only conventional western medicine, while the exposure group additionally received differentiated CHM for at least five consecutive days. Outcomes were compared between two patient groups, including cough resolution rate, sputum resolution rate (assessed by volume, color, and consistency), incidence of abnormal C-reactive protein (CRP), incidence of abnormal white blood cell (WBC) count, and radiographic resolution rate of pulmonary infiltrates on chest imaging. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to identify factors influencing clinical efficacy. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to age, gender, smoking status, history of hypertension, and pneumonia severity score (CURB-65), and the efficacy of treatment for cough and sputum was analyzed within each subgroup. Cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted using cough resolution rate as the outcome measure, evaluating the pharmacoeconomics of the two groups. ResultsA total of 1688 patients were included with 1293 in the exposure group and 395 in the non-exposure group. Compared to the non-exposure group, the exposure group demonstrated significantly higher resolution rates of cough, sputum volume, color, and consistency, as well as a significantly lower incidence of abnormal CRP (P<0.05). No statistically significant difference was observed between the groups in terms of abnormal WBC count and radiographic resolution rate of pulmonary infiltrates (P>0.05). Logistic regression analysis showed that the cough resolution rate in the exposure group was 1.83 times that of the non-exposure group, while the probabilities of resolution in sputum volume, color, and consistency were 1.37, 2.09, and 1.56 times those of the non-exposure group, respectively (P<0.05). Subgroup analyses showed that the exposure group achieved significantly higher cough resolution rates across most subgroups except for populations with a CURB-65 score ≥2 or those with a history of hypertension (P<0.05). Specifically, among females, patients aged ≥18 and <65 years, non-smokers, those without hypertension, and those with a CURB-65 score of 0, the exposure group showed a higher cough resolution rate than the non-exposure group (P<0.05). From an economic perspective, total hospitalization cost, length of stay, antibiotic cost, and CHM cost all differed significantly between groups (P<0.05). The cost-effectiveness ratio (CER) was 10,788.80 CNY/case in the exposure group, while 22,513.80 CNY/case in the non-exposure group. This implies that, compared with the exposure group, the non-exposure group incurred an additional 17,302.27 CNY to achieve one case of cough resolution. When the willingness-to-pay threshold ranged from 0 to 50,000 CNY, the probability of economic advantage was consistently higher in the exposure group than in the non-exposure group. ConclusionOn the basis of conventional western medicine, the addition of CHM in accordance with the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol can effectively improve clinical symptoms, reduce inflammatory markers, promote clinical recovery, and is more cost-effective in treating adults with non-severe CAP.
3.Efficacy and Economic Evaluation of Weishi Qingjin Formula (苇石清金方)in the Treatment of Adult Community-Acquired Pneumonia with Phlegm-Heat Obstructing the Lung Syndrome:A Multicenter Retrospective Real-World Cohort Study
Yeqing JI ; Ye MA ; Zhichao WANG ; Fanchao FENG ; Mingzhi PU ; Hong LYU ; Xiaodong HU ; Gaohua FENG ; Xiaoqian FANG ; Guicai ZHANG ; Yanfen TANG ; Yeqing ZHANG ; Yao ZHUFU ; Wenpan PENG ; Hao WANG ; Cheng GU ; Zhichao ZHANG ; Shuang YANG ; Xinyu SUN ; Qi ZHAO ; Aojie GUO ; Xin TONG ; Zhuoyue WU ; Xiaoxiao WANG ; Jia LIU ; Hailang HE ; Xianmei ZHOU
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2026;67(9):975-984
ObjectiveTo observe the real‑world effectiveness and economic outcomes of Weishi Qingjin Formula (苇石清金方, WQF) in the treatment of adult community‑acquired pneumonia (CAP) with phlegm‑heat obstructing the lung syndrome. MethodsBased on a multicenter, real-world retrospective cohort study, clinical data were collected from hospitalized adult patients diagnosed with non‑severe CAP and phlegm‑heat obstructing the lung syndrome in 10 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) hospitals in Jiangsu province. Patients were divided into an exposure group (those who received oral WQF) and a non‑exposure group (those who did not). The following outcomes were compared between the two groups before and after treatment, which were remission rates of clinical symptoms including cough, expectoration (sputum volume, color, consistency), and chest pain, levels of inflammatory markers including C‑reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cell count (WBC), and the rate of pulmonary inflammatory absorption on chest CT. Subgroup analyses were performed based on age, gender, smoking status, presence of hypertension, and the severity of community-acquired pneumonia (CURB‑65) score, comparing the two groups in terms of cough remission rate, chest pain remission rate, and chest CT absorption rate. For health economic evaluation, cost‑effectiveness analysis was used to calculate the cost‑effectiveness ratio (CER) and incremental cost‑effectiveness ratio (ICER). Univariate sensitivity analysis and probabilistic sensitivity analysis were performed to test the robustness of the results. ResultsA total of 647 patients in the exposure group and 1491 patients in the non-exposure group were included in the final statistical analysis. There was no statistically significant difference in length of hospital stay, gender, marital status, smoking history, bronchoscopy history, and comorbidities between the groups (P>0.05), but age, CURB-65 score, and antibiotic use. The exposure group had significantly higher remission rates of cough and sputum consistency than the non-exposure group (P<0.05). After adjusting for confounders using propensity score matching and logistic regression, the cough remission rate in the exposure group was 1.49 times that of the non-exposure group (P<0.01). No significant difference was observed between groups in the reduction rates of CRP and WBC, and in the rate of pulmonary inflammatory absorption on chest CT (P>0.05). Subgroup analyses revealed that the cough remission rate in the exposure group was significantly better than that in the non-exposure group except for patients aged ≥65 years, smokers, hypertensive patients, those using other type antibiotics or not using antibiotics, and those with a CURB-65 score ≥1 (P<0.05). Among smokers, the chest pain remission rate in the exposure group was 4.38 times that of the non-exposure group (P<0.01). No significant difference in chest CT absorption rate was found between groups across subgroups of gender, age, hypertension status, or antibiotic type (P>0.05). In terms of economic evaluation, CER was 10,877.60 CNY/case in the exposure group and 16,773.10 CNY/case in the non-exposure group. Compared to the exposure group, the non-exposure group incurred an additional 15,034.26 CNY to achieve one case of cough resolution, indicating a more favorable cost-effectiveness profile. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis yielded results consistent with the cost-effectiveness analysis, confirming the robustness of the findings. ConclusionWQF demonstrates significant efficacy in improving cough symptoms in the treatment of adult CAP with phlegm-heat obstructing the lung syndrome, and also exhibits favorable economic benefits.
4.Clinical Efficacy and Economic Evaluation of 1293 Non-Severe Adult Patients with Community-Acquired Pneumonia Treated by the Jiangsu Traditional Chinese Medicine Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Dominant Diseases:A Multicenter,Retrospective Real-World Cohort Study
Ye MA ; Yeqing JI ; Zhichao WANG ; Fanchao FENG ; Mingzhi PU ; Hong LYU ; Xiaodong HU ; Gaohua FENG ; Xiaoqian FANG ; Guicai ZHANG ; Yanfen TANG ; Yeqing ZHANG ; Yao ZHUFU ; Wenpan PENG ; Hao WANG ; Cheng GU ; Zhichao ZHANG ; Shuang YANG ; Xinyu SUN ; Qi ZHAO ; Aojie GUO ; Xin TONG ; Zhuoyue WU ; Xiaoxiao WANG ; Jia LIU ; Hailang HE ; Xianmei ZHOU
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2026;67(9):966-974
ObjectiveTo evaluate the clinical efficacy and economic value of the Jiangsu Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Dominant Diseases (abbreviated as the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol) in adult patients with non-severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) based on real-world clinical data. MethodsA retrospective real-world cohort study was conducted using electronic medical records of adult patients hospitalized for non-severe CAP from September 1st, 2023 to December 31st, 2024 across 10 TCM hospitals in Jiangsu province. Patients were classified into an exposure group and a non-exposure group based on whether they received Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) according to the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol. The non-exposure group received only conventional western medicine, while the exposure group additionally received differentiated CHM for at least five consecutive days. Outcomes were compared between two patient groups, including cough resolution rate, sputum resolution rate (assessed by volume, color, and consistency), incidence of abnormal C-reactive protein (CRP), incidence of abnormal white blood cell (WBC) count, and radiographic resolution rate of pulmonary infiltrates on chest imaging. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to identify factors influencing clinical efficacy. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to age, gender, smoking status, history of hypertension, and pneumonia severity score (CURB-65), and the efficacy of treatment for cough and sputum was analyzed within each subgroup. Cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted using cough resolution rate as the outcome measure, evaluating the pharmacoeconomics of the two groups. ResultsA total of 1688 patients were included with 1293 in the exposure group and 395 in the non-exposure group. Compared to the non-exposure group, the exposure group demonstrated significantly higher resolution rates of cough, sputum volume, color, and consistency, as well as a significantly lower incidence of abnormal CRP (P<0.05). No statistically significant difference was observed between the groups in terms of abnormal WBC count and radiographic resolution rate of pulmonary infiltrates (P>0.05). Logistic regression analysis showed that the cough resolution rate in the exposure group was 1.83 times that of the non-exposure group, while the probabilities of resolution in sputum volume, color, and consistency were 1.37, 2.09, and 1.56 times those of the non-exposure group, respectively (P<0.05). Subgroup analyses showed that the exposure group achieved significantly higher cough resolution rates across most subgroups except for populations with a CURB-65 score ≥2 or those with a history of hypertension (P<0.05). Specifically, among females, patients aged ≥18 and <65 years, non-smokers, those without hypertension, and those with a CURB-65 score of 0, the exposure group showed a higher cough resolution rate than the non-exposure group (P<0.05). From an economic perspective, total hospitalization cost, length of stay, antibiotic cost, and CHM cost all differed significantly between groups (P<0.05). The cost-effectiveness ratio (CER) was 10,788.80 CNY/case in the exposure group, while 22,513.80 CNY/case in the non-exposure group. This implies that, compared with the exposure group, the non-exposure group incurred an additional 17,302.27 CNY to achieve one case of cough resolution. When the willingness-to-pay threshold ranged from 0 to 50,000 CNY, the probability of economic advantage was consistently higher in the exposure group than in the non-exposure group. ConclusionOn the basis of conventional western medicine, the addition of CHM in accordance with the Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol can effectively improve clinical symptoms, reduce inflammatory markers, promote clinical recovery, and is more cost-effective in treating adults with non-severe CAP.
5.Efficacy and Economic Evaluation of Weishi Qingjin Formula (苇石清金方)in the Treatment of Adult Community-Acquired Pneumonia with Phlegm-Heat Obstructing the Lung Syndrome:A Multicenter Retrospective Real-World Cohort Study
Yeqing JI ; Ye MA ; Zhichao WANG ; Fanchao FENG ; Mingzhi PU ; Hong LYU ; Xiaodong HU ; Gaohua FENG ; Xiaoqian FANG ; Guicai ZHANG ; Yanfen TANG ; Yeqing ZHANG ; Yao ZHUFU ; Wenpan PENG ; Hao WANG ; Cheng GU ; Zhichao ZHANG ; Shuang YANG ; Xinyu SUN ; Qi ZHAO ; Aojie GUO ; Xin TONG ; Zhuoyue WU ; Xiaoxiao WANG ; Jia LIU ; Hailang HE ; Xianmei ZHOU
Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2026;67(9):975-984
ObjectiveTo observe the real‑world effectiveness and economic outcomes of Weishi Qingjin Formula (苇石清金方, WQF) in the treatment of adult community‑acquired pneumonia (CAP) with phlegm‑heat obstructing the lung syndrome. MethodsBased on a multicenter, real-world retrospective cohort study, clinical data were collected from hospitalized adult patients diagnosed with non‑severe CAP and phlegm‑heat obstructing the lung syndrome in 10 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) hospitals in Jiangsu province. Patients were divided into an exposure group (those who received oral WQF) and a non‑exposure group (those who did not). The following outcomes were compared between the two groups before and after treatment, which were remission rates of clinical symptoms including cough, expectoration (sputum volume, color, consistency), and chest pain, levels of inflammatory markers including C‑reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cell count (WBC), and the rate of pulmonary inflammatory absorption on chest CT. Subgroup analyses were performed based on age, gender, smoking status, presence of hypertension, and the severity of community-acquired pneumonia (CURB‑65) score, comparing the two groups in terms of cough remission rate, chest pain remission rate, and chest CT absorption rate. For health economic evaluation, cost‑effectiveness analysis was used to calculate the cost‑effectiveness ratio (CER) and incremental cost‑effectiveness ratio (ICER). Univariate sensitivity analysis and probabilistic sensitivity analysis were performed to test the robustness of the results. ResultsA total of 647 patients in the exposure group and 1491 patients in the non-exposure group were included in the final statistical analysis. There was no statistically significant difference in length of hospital stay, gender, marital status, smoking history, bronchoscopy history, and comorbidities between the groups (P>0.05), but age, CURB-65 score, and antibiotic use. The exposure group had significantly higher remission rates of cough and sputum consistency than the non-exposure group (P<0.05). After adjusting for confounders using propensity score matching and logistic regression, the cough remission rate in the exposure group was 1.49 times that of the non-exposure group (P<0.01). No significant difference was observed between groups in the reduction rates of CRP and WBC, and in the rate of pulmonary inflammatory absorption on chest CT (P>0.05). Subgroup analyses revealed that the cough remission rate in the exposure group was significantly better than that in the non-exposure group except for patients aged ≥65 years, smokers, hypertensive patients, those using other type antibiotics or not using antibiotics, and those with a CURB-65 score ≥1 (P<0.05). Among smokers, the chest pain remission rate in the exposure group was 4.38 times that of the non-exposure group (P<0.01). No significant difference in chest CT absorption rate was found between groups across subgroups of gender, age, hypertension status, or antibiotic type (P>0.05). In terms of economic evaluation, CER was 10,877.60 CNY/case in the exposure group and 16,773.10 CNY/case in the non-exposure group. Compared to the exposure group, the non-exposure group incurred an additional 15,034.26 CNY to achieve one case of cough resolution, indicating a more favorable cost-effectiveness profile. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis yielded results consistent with the cost-effectiveness analysis, confirming the robustness of the findings. ConclusionWQF demonstrates significant efficacy in improving cough symptoms in the treatment of adult CAP with phlegm-heat obstructing the lung syndrome, and also exhibits favorable economic benefits.
6.Construction and practice of a " 1+ X" patient service defect management system in a hospital
Hong JIANG ; Shuang CHAI ; Hao FENG ; Jing QIN
Chinese Journal of Hospital Administration 2025;41(4):308-312
Patient complaints not only reflect the shortcomings of hospital services, but also provide an opportunity for hospitals to improve quality. In July 2023, based on the theory of comprehensive quality management and from the perspective of complaint management, Shanghai General Hospital constructed and launched a " 1 (patient service quality improvement work team)+ X (Shanghai 12320 Health Hotline, various functional departments and clinical medical technology departments of the hospital)" patient service defect management system. This system established a four level organizational structure of patient service quality improvement leadership group-work team-clinical medical technology department work group-all employees. It established mechanisms for acceptance, disposal, improvement, training, evaluation, and rewards and punishments, created a comprehensive service platform, and achieved systematic improvement in patient services. By the end of 2024, the hospital had carried out nearly 200 patient service improvement projects; The daily usage of cloud customer service had exceeded 5 000 people, with an effective response rate of over 94%. In 2024, the response rate for handling work orders through various channels within 48 hours was 90%. This practice had achieved good results in improving the quality of hospital services and enhancing the patient experience, which could provide references for other hospitals to promote the management of patient service defects.
7.Investigation on the dynamic trajectory of platelet count in healthy adults
Yuewei LING ; Qiang MENG ; Yiming ZHANG ; Tiancong ZHANG ; Kuofu LIU ; Si CHEN ; Xinwen YUAN ; Shuang WANG ; Zheng YANG ; Hong JIANG ; Yang FU
Chinese Journal of Laboratory Medicine 2025;48(9):1222-1226
Objective:To investigate the longitudinal patterns and influencing factors of platelet counts among healthy adults in Sichuan Province from 2010 to 2021, and to inform the establishment of region-specific reference intervals for platelet counts.Methods:This study is a retrospective study. A total of 7 808 healthy adults who underwent annual physical examinations at West China Hospital, Sichuan University, between January 2010 and December 2021 were included. All participants were permanent Chengdu residents and completed consecutive complete blood count tests. Group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) was used to identify distinct trajectories of platelet count over the ten-year period. One-way analyses were then conducted to compare baseline demographic characteristics (sex and age) among the different trajectory groups.Results:Among 7 808 participants, 4 589 (58.8%) were male and 3 219 (41.2%) were female. Four platelet count trajectories were identified by GBTM: steadily increasing group [27.4% (2 139/7 808)], early increase-plateau group [44.1% (3 445/7 808)], early decrease-subsequent increase group [5.4% (422/7 808)], and steadily decreasing group [23.1% (1 802/7 808)], with an average growth rate of 3.3%, 1.6%, 0.7%, and -0.6%, respectively. There were statistically significant differences in both sex and age distributions among the four trajectory groups. Sex-distribution differed significantly across the four trajectory groups ( χ2=73.3, P<0.001). The male proportions in the four trajectory groups were 59.6% (1 275/2 139), 62.8% (2 165/3 445), 48.1% (203/422), and 52.5% (946/1 802), respectively. The baseline ages were 45 (36, 55), 43 (35, 53), 50 (40, 60), and 47 (39, 58) years, respectively (H=121.0, P<0.001). Conclusions:Healthy adults in Sichuan Province exhibit four longitudinal trajectories of platelet counts: steadily increasing, early increase-plateau, early decrease-subsequent increase, and steadily decreasing. The two trajectories characterized by rising platelet counts (steadily increasing group and early increase-plateau group) exhibited higher male predominance and lower median ages, whereas the early decrease-subsequent increase group and the steadily decreasing group exhibited lower male proportions and higher median ages. Therefore, while establishing reference intervals and developing health management strategies for platelet counts, it is essential to account for the sex, age characteristics and the population′s dynamic changes.
8.Construction Strategies and Challenges of Vascularized Brain Organoids
Meng-Meng CHEN ; Nan HU ; Shuang-Qing BAO ; Xiao-Hong LI
Progress in Biochemistry and Biophysics 2025;52(7):1757-1770
Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D) neural cultures that self-organize from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) cultured in vitro. Compared with traditional two-dimensional (2D) neural cell culture systems, brain organoids demonstrate a significantly enhanced capacity to faithfully replicate key aspects of the human brain, including cellular diversity, 3D tissue architecture, and functional neural network activity. Importantly, they also overcome the inherent limitations of animal models, which often differ from human biology in terms of genetic background and brain structure. Owing to these advantages, brain organoids have emerged as a powerful tool for recapitulating human-specific developmental processes, disease mechanisms, and pharmacological responses, thereby providing an indispensable model for advancing our understanding of human brain development and neurological disorders. Despite their considerable potential, conventional brain organoids face a critical limitation: the absence of a functional vascular system. This deficiency results in inadequate oxygen and nutrient delivery to the core regions of the organoid, ultimately constraining long-term viability and functional maturation. Moreover, the lack of early neurovascular interactions prevents these models from fully recapitulating the human brain microenvironment. In recent years, the introduction of vascularization strategies has significantly enhanced the physiological relevance of brain organoid models. Researchers have successfully developed various vascularized brain organoid models through multiple innovative approaches. Biological methods, for example, involve co-culturing brain organoids with endothelial cells to induce the formation of static vascular networks. Alternatively, co-differentiation strategies direct both mesodermal and ectodermal lineages to generate vascularized tissues, while fusion techniques combine pre-formed vascular organoids with brain organoids. Beyond biological approaches, tissue engineering techniques have played a pivotal role in promoting vascularization. Microfluidic systems enable the creation of dynamic, perfusable vascular networks that mimic blood flow, while 3D printing technologies allow for the precise fabrication of artificial vascular scaffolds tailored to the organoid’s architecture. Additionally, in vivo transplantation strategies facilitate the formation of functional, blood-perfused vascular networks through host-derived vascular infiltration. The incorporation of vascularization has yielded multiple benefits for brain organoid models. It alleviates hypoxia within the organoid core, thereby improving cell survival and supporting long-term culture and maturation. Furthermore, vascularized organoids recapitulate critical features of the neurovascular unit, including the early structural and functional characteristics of the blood-brain barrier. These advancements have established vascularized brain organoids as a highly relevant platform for studying neurovascular disorders, drug screening, and other applications. However, achieving sustained, long-term functional perfusion while preserving vascular structural integrity and promoting vascular maturation remains a major challenge in the field. In this review, we systematically outline the key stages of human neurovascular development and provide a comprehensive analysis of the various strategies employed to construct vascularized brain organoids. We further present a detailed comparative assessment of different vascularization techniques, highlighting their respective strengths and limitations. Additionally, we summarize the principal challenges currently faced in brain organoid vascularization and discuss the specific technical obstacles that persist. Finally, in the outlook section, we elaborate on the promising applications of vascularized brain organoids in disease modeling and drug testing, address the main controversies and unresolved questions in the field, and propose potential directions for future research.
10.The SMILE study: Study of long-term methotrexate and iguratimod combination therapy in early rheumatoid arthritis.
Fang DU ; Qing DAI ; Jialin TENG ; Liangjing LU ; Shuang YE ; Ping YE ; Zhiqian LIN ; Hong DING ; Min DAI ; Chunde BAO
Chinese Medical Journal 2025;138(14):1705-1713
BACKGROUND:
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by chronic inflammation and joint destruction. Iguratimod (IGU) is a novel conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (csDMARD) with good efficacy and safety for the treatment of active RA in China and Japan. However, the long-term effects of IGU on the progression of bone destruction or radiographic progression in patients with active RA remain unknown. We aimed to investigate the efficacy and safety of iguratimod (IGU), a combination of methotrexate (MTX) and IGU, and IGU in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis (RA) who were naïve to MTX.
METHODS:
This multicenter, double-blind, randomized, non-inferiority clinical trial was conducted at 28 centers for over 52 weeks in China. In total, 911 patients were randomized (1:1:1) to receive MTX monotherapy (10-15 mg weekly, n = 293), IGU monotherapy (25 mg twice daily, n = 297), or IGU + MTX (10-15 mg weekly for MTX and 25 mg twice daily for IGU, n = 305) for 52 weeks. The patients' clinical characteristics, Simplified Disease Activity Index (SDAI), Clinical Disease Activity Index (CDAI), disease activity score in 28 joints-C-reactive protein (DAS28-CRP) level, and disease activity score in 28 joints-erythrocyte sedimentation rate (DAS28-ESR) were assessed at baseline. The primary endpoints were the proportion of patients with ≥20% improvement according to the American College of Rheumatology (ACR20) response and changes in the van der Heijde-modified total Sharp score (vdH-mTSS) at week 52.
RESULTS:
The proportions of patients achieving an ACR20 response at week 52 were 77.44%, 77.05 %, and 65.87% for IGU monotherapy, IGU + MTX, and MTX monotherapy, respectively. The non-inferiority of IGU monotherapy to MTX monotherapy was established with the ACR20 (11.57%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.35-18.79%; P <0.001) and vdH-mTSS (-0.37; 95% CI, -1.22-0.47; P = 0.022). IGU monotherapy was also superior to MTX monotherapy in terms of ACR20 ( P = 0.002) but not the vdH-mTSS. The superiority of IGU + MTX over MTX monotherapy was confirmed in terms of the ACR20 (11.18%; 95% CI, 3.99-18.37%; P = 0.003), but not in the vdH-mTSS (-0.68; 95% CI, -1.46-0.11; P = 0.091). However, the difference in the incidence rates of adverse events was not statistically significant.
CONCLUSIONS:
IGU monotherapy/IGU + MTX showed a more favorable clinical response than did MTX monotherapy. IGU may have some clinical benefits over MTX in terms of radiographic progression, implying that IGU may be considered as an initial therapeutic option for patients with active RA.
TRIAL REGISTRATION
https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ , NCT01548001.
Adult
;
Aged
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Female
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Humans
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Male
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Middle Aged
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Antirheumatic Agents/therapeutic use*
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Arthritis, Rheumatoid/drug therapy*
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Chromones/adverse effects*
;
Double-Blind Method
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Drug Therapy, Combination
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Methotrexate/adverse effects*
;
Treatment Outcome
;
Sulfonamides

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