Introduction: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in pregnancy is the commonest cause of congenital infection worldwide. Primary CMV infection in pregnancy carries a higher risk of fetal transmission compared to non-primary infection. This study aims to determine the cytokines expression in pregnant women with primary and non-primary CMV infections in both types of infection. Methods: This prospective cohort study was conducted at Microbiology Laboratory, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) from January 2019 until June 2020. Seventy-four pregnant women with abnormal pregnancy outcomes with positive CMV IgG with or without IgM by electrochemiluminescence assay (ECLIA) were subjected to IgG avidity assay by ECLIA method to discriminate primary and non-primary CMV infection. Later, the sera were subjected to magnetic Luminex multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for cytokine analysis to determine their concentrations in both primary and non-primary CMV infection. Cytokines and chemokines tested were IL-12, IL-2, IFN- γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IFN- γ, TNF-α, MCP-1 (CCL-2), and IP-10 (CXCL-10). Results: Concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, and MCP-1 (CCL-2) were significantly elevated in pregnant women with primary CMV infection with the p-values of (0.001, 0.035, and 0.002) respectively. The intensity of IFN-γ, IL-12, and IL-2 were higher in primary CMV infection with the p-values of (0.018, 0.004, and 0.007). Conclusion: The pro-inflammatory cytokines were expressed significantly in pregnant women with primary CMV infection together with MCP-1 (CCL2), showing predominant Th1 response. The low level of cytokines in non-primary CMV infection might be due to the latent state of CMV in a host.

Objective To characterize the immunogenicity and the induction of cross-reactive responses against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) of a proteoliposome (PL) from Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) with and without alum hydroxide (AL) as adjuvant (PLBCG-AL and PLBCG, respectively) in BALB/c mice. Methods BALB/c mice were inoculated with phosphate buffer solution, BCG, PLBCG and PLBCG-AL. The humoral immunogenicity was determined by ELISA [immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgG1 and IgG2a] and the cellular immunogenicity was evaluated in vivo by delayed type hypersensitivity. The humoral cross-reactive response against M. tuberculosis was determined by Western blot. Results Sera from animals immunized with PLBCG-AL and PLBCG showed significant increase in specific total IgG and IgG1 antibodies and the presence of cross-reactive antibodies against M. tuberculosis antigens, which were more intense with the use of alum as adjuvant. Mice immunized with PLBCG and PLBCG-AL also showed a specific cellular response in vivo. Conclusions The cellular and humoral immunogenicity of PLBCG and the capacity to induce cross-reactive responses against M. tuberculosis is in agreement with the protective capacity previously demonstrated by this vaccine candidate and supports the continuation of its evaluation in further stages.

Liposomes are phospholipid bilayer vesicles, which are biocompatible, biodegradable and nontoxic vehicles suitable for numerous drug and gene delivery applications. In this review, we discuss the prospect of using liposome technology in the development of a vaccine for tuberculosis. Tuberculosis remains an important health problem that requires the development of an effective vaccine, especially since the only approved vaccine for it continues to be the Bacille Calmette-Geurin (BCG) one developed 100 years ago. This review focuses on the different applications of liposomes toward achieving this goal. Numerous liposomal formulations showing prospect in the research stage and in clinical trials are discussed.