In India, indigenous remedies have been used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus since the time of Charaka and Sushruta. Plants have always been an exemplary source of drugs and many of the currently available drugs have been derived directly or indirectly from them. The ethnobotanical information reports that about 800 plants may possess anti-diabetic potential. Out of several Indian medicinal plants 33 plants were reviewed. The most effective antidiabetic Indian medicinal plants are Acacia arabica, Aegle marmelose, Agrimonia eupatoria, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Azadirachta indica, Benincasa hispida, Beta vulgaris, Caesalpinia bonducella, Citrullus colocynthis, Coccinia indica, Eucalyptus globules, Ficus bengalenesis, Gymnema sylvestre, Hibiscus rosasinesis, Ipomoea batatas, Jatropha curcus, Mangifera indica, Momordica charantia, Morus alba, Mucuna pruriens, Ocimum sanctum, Pterocarpus marsupium, Punica granatum, Syzigium cumini, Tinospora cordifolia, Trigonella foenum graecum. A wide array of plant derived active principles representing numerous chemical compounds has demonstrated activity consistent with their possible use in the treatment of diabetes.

Despite clinical suspicion of an infection, brain abscess samples are often culture-negative in routine microbiological testing. Direct PCR of such samples enables the identification of microbes that may be fastidious, non-viable, or unculturable. Brain abscess samples (n = 217) from neurosurgical patients were subjected to broad range 16S rRNA gene PCR and sequencing for bacteria. All these samples and seven formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue (FFPE) samples were subjected to species-specific 18S rRNA PCR for neurotropic free-living amoeba that harbour pathogenic bacteria. The concordance between smear and/or culture and PCR was 69%. One-third of the samples were smear- and culture-negative for bacterial agents. However, 88% of these culture-negative samples showed the presence of bacterial 16S rRNA by PCR. Sanger sequencing of 27 selected samples showed anaerobic/fastidious gram negative bacteria (GNB, 38%), facultative Streptococci (35%), and aerobic GNB (27%). Targeted metagenomics sequencing of three samples showed multiple bacterial species, including anaerobic and non-culturable bacteria. One FFPE tissue revealed the presence of Acanthamoeba 18S rRNA. None of the frozen brain abscess samples tested was positive for 18S rRNA of Acanthamoeba or Balamuthia mandrillaris. The microbial 16/18S rRNA PCR and sequencing outperformed culture in detecting anaerobes, facultative Streptococci and FLA in brain abscess samples. Genetic analyses of 16S/18S sequences, either through Sanger or metagenomic sequencing, will be an essential diagnostic technology to be included for diagnosing culture-negative brain abscess samples. Characterizing the microbiome of culture-negative brain abscess samples by molecular methods could enable detection and/or treatment of the source of infection.