Theories of classified management which are based on risk governance are introduced into the newly revised , but the punishments on the manufacturers of unconformity products are not classified based on the severity and risks caused by the test items. This article analysed the disadvantages of current punishment measures on the manufacturers of unconformity products and the theoretical basis of classified punishments. The feasibility of classified punishments had also been studied and some basis of discretionary punishments was provided under the current regulations.
Equipment Failure ; Equipment and Supplies ; standards ; Punishment

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Filicide, the murder of a child by his or her own parent, is a multifaceted phenomenon with diverse causes and characteristics. This study aimed to review the present state of knowledge regarding demographic, psychosocial, clinical, and legal characteristics of filicide. METHODS: Domestic and International database were systematically searched with keyword of "filicide" for studies published until October, 2010, in English or Korean. Of the 107 searched articles, those that were overlapped in contents or out of the scope of this review were excluded. Finally, total 88 literatures were included in this review. RESULTS: The characteristics of the parents who committed filicide varied greatly by the type of the sample enrolled in studies. The results of the review suggested that little is known about the factors that confer victimization risk to children. The legal punishment was also different by nations. CONCLUSION: Given the range of capability of filicide, mental health professionals should be alert to the possibility of filicide in a variety of parents. A systematic and more focused research to elucidate reliable predictors of filicide is needed to better prevent these tragic events.
Child ; Crime Victims ; Homicide ; Humans ; Mental Health ; Parents ; Punishment

People as third-party observers, without direct self-interest, may punish norm violators to maintain social norms. However, third-party judgment and the follow-up punishment might be susceptible to the way we frame (i.e., verbally describe) a norm violation. We conducted a behavioral and a neuroimaging experiment to investigate the above phenomenon, which we call the "third-party framing effect". In these experiments, participants observed an anonymous perpetrator deciding whether to keep her/his economic benefit while exposing a victim to a risk of physical pain (described as "harming others" in one condition and "not helping others" in the other condition), then they had a chance to punish that perpetrator at their own cost. Our results showed that the participants were more willing to execute third-party punishment under the harm frame compared to the help frame, manifesting a framing effect. Self-reported anger toward perpetrators mediated the relationship between empathy toward victims and the framing effect. Meanwhile, activation of the insula mediated the relationship between mid-cingulate cortex activation and the framing effect; the functional connectivity between these regions significantly predicted the size of the framing effect. These findings shed light on the psychological and neural mechanisms of the third-party framing effect.
Empathy ; Female ; Gyrus Cinguli ; Humans ; Neuroimaging ; Pain ; Punishment/psychology*

Because the perception of infertility in medieval Europe ranged from the extremely religious view of it as a malediction of God or the devil's work, to the reasonable medical conception of it as a sort of disease to treat, it is very difficult to determine the general attitudes of ordinary people towards infertility. This article seeks to elucidate the common social perception of infertility and its treatment in late medieval Europe by analyzing the case of Margherita Datini, an Italian merchant's wife who lived in the 1400s. It relies heavily on the documents left by her and her husband, Francesco Datini; the couple left many records, including letters of correspondence between them. Margherita and those around her regarded infertility not as the devil's curse or a punishment by God but as a disease that can be cured. Margherita and her husband, Francesco, tried hard to cure their infertility. They received treatment and prescriptions from several doctors while also relying on folk remedies, religious therapies, and even magical remedies. The comparative analysis of Datini documents, medical books, and theoretical treatises or prescriptive essays by clerics suggests that the general perception of infertility in medieval Europe was located between the extremely religious and modern medical conceptions of it.
Clergy ; Europe ; Fertilization ; Humans ; Infertility* ; Italy* ; Magic ; Medicine, Traditional ; Prescriptions ; Punishment ; Social Perception* ; Spouses*

Over the past quarter century, research on physical punishment has proliferated. Almost without exception, these studies have identified physical punishment as a risk factor in children's behavioral, emotional, cognitive and brain development. At the same time, the United Nations has established that physical punishment constitutes a breach of children's basic human rights to protection and dignity. Together, research findings and human rights standards have propelled profound global change. To date, 51 countries have prohibited all physical punishment of children. In this article, we review the literature on physical punishment within its historical context, and provide recommendations for health professionals working with families.
Brain ; Child ; Child Abuse ; Child Development ; Health Occupations ; Human Rights ; Humans ; Punishment* ; Risk Factors ; United Nations

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate current circumstances of violence against wives, and to identify the wife's opinion of the spouse's punishment in domestic violence cases. METHOD: The subjects were 216 married women in G province. Data was gathered from November 22 to December 6, 2004. Data was analyzed by descriptive statistics, and the x2-test using SPSS/Win 10.0 program. RESULTS: About thirty six percent of the subjects had experience with domestic violence. There was a high prevalence of psychological aggression(68%), sexual coercion (36%), physical assault(31%), and injury(19%). The subjects experiencing domestic violence had a higher positive attitude towards the spouse's punishment than subjects not experiencing domestic violence. The more severe the domestic violence was, the more the battered women's positive attitude for criminal action increased. CONCLUSION: An educational program and public relations will increase women's empowerment to solve domestic violence. A more cooperative and integrative program for prevention and an intervention system against domestic violence should be developed for women in battered situations.
Coercion ; Criminals ; Domestic Violence* ; Female ; Humans ; Power (Psychology) ; Prevalence ; Public Relations ; Punishment* ; Spouses ; Violence

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to provide basic data on preventive child abuse program development. METHOD: Data were collected on 105 high-risk families of child abuse intervention was obtained from their main child rearer who raised the child under 18 years, olds during 10 months period from May, 2000 to March 2001. RESULT: The results were as follows : 1. Child abuse occurred in the subject's home, in the case of mild child abuse, 'throwing an object at the child' had the highest percentage 39.1%, in severe child abuse, 'rod, stick, belt, broom beating or using a variety of objects such as' had the highest percentage 49.5%, and in very severe child abuse, 'hospitalized by belting' had the highest percentage 3.8%. 2. The degree of child abuse potential showed high risk child abuse score with a mean of 213.3. The degree of beliefs in corporal punishment showed that subjects perceived corporal punishment of children positively with a mean of 32.2. 3. With respect to the child abuse potential, there were significant correlations with the subjects' age (r=.294, p=.002), education level (r=-.442, p=.000), and family income (r=-.355, p=.000). CONCLUSION: From this study not only child abuse occurrence but also child abuse potential were severely increased in poor livelihood families. Therefore to the high risk group, individual preventive approach must be applied.
Child ; Child Abuse ; Cytisus ; Education ; Humans ; Only Child ; Program Development ; Punishment

The Medical Service Act and many other laws regulate the actions of medical professionals. Receiving rebates from pharmaceutical companies has been criticized as unethical but not punished until 2011. However, it is now strongly forbidden. Unlicensed acts of medical care, which include providing medical care beyond the scope of the license or giving directions to an unlicensed person to practice medical care, are strictly punished even in the case of licensed medical professionals. It recently became an issue whether a doctor who wrote prescriptions to patients after examining them over the telephone violated the Medical Service Act. In addition, it is necessary to pay special attention to the administration of propofol since it recently became a major controversy. Furthermore, public health doctors are legally forbidden to work outside of a public health institution. The number of regulations on the medical industry is increasing every day. New laws usually toughen up punishment for those violating regulations. There is a legal maxim that says, "Ignorance of law excuses no one." Therefore, it is necessary for medical professionals to steadily study and become familiar with applicable laws and related criminal cases to prevent themselves from becoming criminally liable.
Criminals ; Humans ; Jurisprudence ; Licensure ; Prescriptions ; Propofol ; Public Health ; Punishment ; Social Control, Formal ; Telephone

Physicians are under an excessive control of relevant laws because they have sublime social responsibilities to take care of the health and life of patients. Physicians managing medical institutions are taking pains to abide by various regulations under the medical services law, national health insurance law, medical treatment benefit law, industrial disaster indemnity insurance law, and automobile damage indemnity coverage law. It seems irrational that dual punishment is applied by one article and physicians are revealed in uncertain environment that can be degraded to offender without mistake or evil. For this reason, the regulations need to be reformed. To reform the regulations, firstly, the concept of fraud and surcharge should be established, secondly, unification of the punishment regulation system is necessary to avoid irrational dual punishment, and most importantly, the medical professionals' voluntary observance of the regulations is needed.
Automobiles ; Criminals ; Disasters ; Fraud ; Humans ; Insurance ; Jurisprudence ; National Health Programs ; Punishment* ; Social Control, Formal ; Social Responsibility

OBJECTIVE: After 'Bioethics & biosafety act' has been enacted since 2005, Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for embryo and Prenatal diagnosis (PD) for fetus are regulated by this law. This article will discuss the problem and revision of that law. METHODS: From the medical point of view, we consider the developmental stages of human embryo, genetic disease and PGD. According to the documentary records, we discuss the PGD allowance of European countries and USA and requisites for that allowance. We also discuss the PD in association with the 'Motherhood act' and a related judicial decision. RESULTS: On PGD, the attitude of quality of European countries is in the nature of variable spectrum and USA doesn't have explicit federal regulations. PGD permission is based on the individual institution and the genetic disease. The genetic conditions for legitimate abortion of 'Motherhood act are not included in Bioethics & biosafety act'. So The purpose and criteria of PD is now in a state of confusion. CONCLUSION: PGD should be regulated within the title of embryo in 'Bioethics & biosafety act' not within the title of genetic test. Each PGD should be permitted individually on the basis of each institution and genetic disease and then the criteria could be more broadened. The provision for PD should include the legitimate abortion conditions of 'Motherhood act'. To diagnose the sex linked genetic disease, the punishment for sex detection should be excepted to the 'Medicine act'.
Bioethics ; Embryonic Structures ; Fetus ; Humans ; Jurisprudence ; Preimplantation Diagnosis* ; Prenatal Diagnosis* ; Prostaglandins D ; Punishment ; Social Control, Formal