The essence of endogenous turbidity in Chinese medicine (CM) is different from cream, fat, phlegm, retention, damp, toxicity, and stasis. Along with the development of modern scientific technologies and biology, researches on the essence of endogenous turbidity should keep pace with the time. Its material bases should be defined and new connotation endowed at the microscopic level. The essence of turbidity lies in abnormal functions of zang-fu organs. Sugar, fat, protein, and other nutrient substances cannot be properly decomposed, but into semi-finished products or intermediate metabolites. They are inactive and cannot participate in normal material syntheses and decomposition. They cannot be transformed to energy metabolism, but also cannot be synthesized as executive functioning of active proteins. If they cannot be degraded by autophagy-lysosome or ubiquitin-prosome into glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, and other basic nutrients to be used again, they will accumulate inside the human body and become endogenous turbidity. Therefore, endogenous turbidity is different from final metabolites such as urea, carbon dioxide, etc., which can transform vital qi. How to improve the function of zang-fu organs, enhance its degradation by autophagy-lysosome or ubiquitin-prosome is of great significance in normal operating of zang-fu organs and preventing the emergence and progress of related diseases.
Autophagy ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex

In several human tumors, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and nuclear factor κB (NFκB) are activated and interact; how these STAT3–NFκB complexes are transported to the nucleus is not fully understood. In this study, we found that Rac1 was activated in starved cancer cells and that activated Rac1 coexisted with STAT3 and NFκB. Rac1 knockdown and overexpression of the dominant-negative mutant Rac1N19 inhibited the degradation of IκBα, an inhibitor of NFκB. MG132, an inhibitor of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway, increased the amount of non-phosphorylated IκBα, but not serine-phosphorylated IκBα, indicating that IκBα degradation by Rac1 in starved cancer cells is independent of IκBα serine phosphorylation by IKK. Rac1 knockdown also inhibited the nuclear translocation of STAT3–NFκB complexes, indicating that this translocation requires activated Rac1. We also demonstrated that the mutant STAT3 Y705F could form complexes with NFκB, and these unphosphorylated STAT3–NFκB complexes translocated into the nucleus and upregulated the activity of NFκB in starved cancer cells, suggesting that phosphorylation of STAT3 is not essential for its translocation. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the crucial role of Rac1 in the function of STAT3–NFκB complexes in starved cancer cells and implies that targeting Rac1 may have future therapeutic significance in cancer therapy.
Humans ; Phosphorylation ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; Serine ; STAT3 Transcription Factor ; Ubiquitin

It has been suggested that proteasome system has a role in initiation, progression, and complication stages of atherosclerosis. Although there is still controversy, there has been no research that compares the expression of proteasome in tissue and serum at each of these stages. This study aimed to investigated the expression of proteasome at different stages of atherosclerosis using rat model. We measured the expression of aortic proteasome by immunohistochemical analyses and were then analyzed using ImageJ software for percentage of area and integrated density. We used Photoshop version 3.0 to analyze aortic proteasome expression as a comparison. We measured serum proteasome expression by enzyme linked immunosorbents assays. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare mean value of percentage of area and serum proteasome. Analysis of variance test was used to compare mean value of integrated density. Correlation test between vascular proteasome expression and serum proteasome expression was made using Spearman test. A P-value of 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Compared with normal, percentage of area was higher in initiation, progression, and complication. Compared with normal, integrated density was higher in initiation and further higher in progression and complication. Data from Image J is similar with data from Photoshop. Serum proteasome expression was higher in initiation compared with normal, and further higher in progression and complication. It was concluded that there were different vascular proteasome expression and serum proteasome expression at the stages of atherosclerosis. These results may be used in research into new marker and therapeutic target in atherosclerosis.
Animals ; Atherosclerosis* ; Immunosorbents ; Models, Animal ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex* ; Rats*

Small RNAs, especially microRNAs (miRNAs),widely exist in eukaryotic cells, with their main functions being regulating gene expression and function of target molecules through the degradation of cellular target RNAs by the ribonuclease-based system. Ubiquitins and ubiquitin-like proteins are polypeptides that exist in most eukaryotic cells, and their main function is almost to regulate protein level through the degradation of cellular proteins by ubiquitin proteasome system. Small RNAs, including miRNAs,and ubiquitins or ubiquitin-like proteins have similarities in many aspects although small RNAs and ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins interact different substrates respectively. Therefore, miRNAs can be defined as ubiquitra (ubiquitous ribonucleic acid, ubiquitra or uRNA), and the other small RNAs can be defined as ubiquitra-like RNA or uRNA-like RNA. The concept of ubiquitra may be applied for explaining the biological essence of small RNAs diversity.
Gene Expression ; MicroRNAs ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; Proteins ; Ubiquitination

OBJECTIVE: The study was performed to establish the purification processes of both 26S and 20S proteasomes, also to investigate the inhibitory properties and patterns of two different proteasome inhibitors on the isolated proteasomes. METHODS: The 26S and 20S proteasomes were purified respectively using liquid chromatographies and glycerol density gradient fractionation. The inhibitory patterns and kinetics of two different proteasome inhibitors were investigated using purified 26S and 20S proteasomes. RESULTS: The purity of the isolated proteasomes were determined by their biochemical properties and electrophoretic patterns. 3-nitro-4-hydroxy-5-indophenylacetyl-leucyl-leucyl-leucyl-vinylsulfone (Nip-L₃-VS) inhibited exclusively the chymotrypsin-like peptidase activities of the 26S and 20S proteasomes. On the other hand, dansyl-phenylyl-leucyl-boronic acid (DFLB) inhibited chymotrpsin-like, trypsin-like, and caspase-like peptidase activities of both proteasomes with different sensitivity. CONCLUSION: The proposed purification method provides efficient separation and isolation of the 26S and 20S proteasomes. Nip-L₃-VS and DFLB were shown to have different inhibitory effects and kinetics on the peptidase activities of the isolated proteasomes. These studies are suggested to be applied to the researches on proteasome inhibitors as therapeutic reagents for many related diseases.
Bortezomib ; Chromatography ; Glycerol ; Hand ; Indicators and Reagents ; Kinetics ; Methods ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; Proteasome Inhibitors

PURPOSE: One of possible mechanisms of the antineoplastic effect by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is an induction of apoptosis. The NSAIDs-induced apoptosis appears to be caspase- and mitochondria-dependent. The ubiquitin-proteasome system, which is a fundamental non- lysosomal tool that cells use to process or degrade a variety of short-lived proteins, is known to be involved in apoptosis and to be located upstream of mitochondrial changes and caspase activation. The present study was conducted to explore the potential role of proteasome pathway in NSAIDs-induced apoptosis. METHODS: We employed sulindac as a NSAID, and the lactacystin as a proteasome inhibitor to investigate the extent of the apoptosis in colon cancer cell line, HT-29 cells. The proteasome activity and the amount of apoptosis were quantified after cells were treated with 1 mM sulindac, 1micrometer lactacystin or both. RESULTS: Sulindac treatment caused apoptosis of the HT-29 cells in a time-dependent manner with resultant changes in nuclear morphology. Western blots also showed caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage after sulindac treatment. Not only single treatment with lactacystin decreased proteasome activity, but co-treatment with sulindac enhanced decrease in proteasome activity further (P<0.01). Treatment with lactacystin only did not induce apoptosis. However, lactacystin augmented the induction of sulindac-induced apoptosis (P<0.01). This synergistic effect was also proven by Western blot analyses, where co-treatment augmented the caspase-3 activation and PARP degradation. CONCLUSIONS: The combination treatment of sulindac with a proteasome inhibitor lactacystin is suggested to be a very effective strategy for the induction of cancer cell apoptosis. Elucidation of the mechanism underlying the regression of colon cancers by combination of sulindac and lactacystin seems to be an immediate challenge in the near future.
Apoptosis* ; Blotting, Western ; Caspase 3 ; Cell Line ; Colonic Neoplasms ; HT29 Cells* ; Humans ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; Proteasome Inhibitors ; Sulindac

This study was purposed to investigate the inhibitory effect of macrocalin A (MA) on proteasome of multiple myeloma U266 cells in vitro and molecular mechanism of MA-inducing apoptosis. U266 cells in vitro were incubated with different concentrations (2, 4, 8 µg/mL) of MA, the Hochest staining and Annexin-V/PI double staining were used to detect the apoptosis of U266 cells. The expressions of protein β1, β1i, β2, β2i, β5, β5i, ubiquitous, 19S subunit S6', and BAD,BCL-2, FAS, FAS-L,MAPK, PARP, Pro-caspase 3, cleaved-caspase 3 were detected by Western blot technique. The results showed that along with time prolonging and dose increasing of MA, the small and compact fluorescent particles were observed in cytoplasm and nucleus of U266 cells stained with Hoechst 33258, the Annexin V(+)/PI(-) cells and the total apoptosis cells (Annexin V(+)/PI(-) and Annexin V(+)/PI(+)) increased. MA could elevate the ubiquitylation level in U266 cells, suppress the expression of β1i,β2, β5i and 19S subunit S6', meanwhile the expression of BCJ-2, MAPK, PARP and pro-caspase 3 were down-regulated along with increasing of drug concentrations, but the expressions of BAD, FAS, FAS-L cleaved-caspase 3 were enhanced. It is concluded that MA can inhibit the effect of proteasome, and the mitochondrial pathway and death receptor pathway may play important roles in apoptosis of U266 cells induced by MA.
Apoptosis ; drug effects ; Cell Line, Tumor ; Diterpenes ; pharmacology ; Humans ; Multiple Myeloma ; pathology ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; metabolism ; Proteasome Inhibitors ; pharmacology

Ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) plays an essential role in eukaryotic protein cycle,the dysregulation of which can lead to tumorigenesis.Increased activities of UPS have been observed in the patients with cancers including leukemia.UPS inhibitors can kill cancer cells by affecting ubiquitin-ligating enzyme E3,deubiquitinase,and protein degradation active sites of UPS.Therefore,UPS inhibitors have emerged as an important therapy for treating hematological malignancies,while they are rarely applied in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia.This paper summarizes the research progress in the inhibitors affecting the protein ubiquitination at different stages of acute myeloid leukemia,aiming to provide new clues for the clinical treatment of acute myeloid leukemia.
Humans ; Proteasome Inhibitors/therapeutic use* ; Ubiquitin/metabolism* ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex/metabolism* ; Ubiquitination ; Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/drug therapy*

Efforts to find etiologies and understand pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) have progressed over decades from epidemiological studies or biochemical studies on brain tissues of PD to discovering genes responsible for familial Parkinson's diseases and dissecting their roles and mechanisms in dopaminergic neuronal death at the molecular level. Eleven loci have been identified in familial PD and five genes have cloned. Although diverse genetic and environmental factors were identified, mechanisms of neurodegeneration by these etiological factors converge into four basic mechanisms; oxidative stress, mitochondrial complex I dysfunction, impairment of ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, and accumulation and aggregation of misfolded/unfolded proteins. These mechanisms appear to be closely interconnected with each other and lead to complex downstream cell death machineries. Understanding more sophisticated pathogenesis of dopaminergic neuronal death will help elucidating critical steps in dopaminergic cell death and developing therapeutic agents in the future.
Brain ; Cell Death ; Clone Cells ; Dopaminergic Neurons ; Oxidative Stress ; Parkinson Disease* ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex

PURPOSE: Anti-p185HER2/neu monoclonal antibody (mAb) that can induce phenotypic reversion and monoclonal antibodies specific for the p185HER2/neu growth factor receptor that are able to diminish its kinase-signaling properties represent a specific advance in the therapy for p185HER2/neu-expressing human cancers. With mAb treatment, down-regulation of p185HER2/neu surface receptors and attenuation of the kinase-signaling properties have been observed and regarded as a basic phenomenon; however, the mechanisms for mAb-induced phenotypic reversion are not clear. METHODS: We used human tumor-cell lines of SK-BR-3, T6-17, and U373MG. With immunoprecipitation and Western blotting, we investigated the changes in p185HER2/neu receptor phosphorylation and the expression of signal-regulatory proteins (SIRPs) after mAb treatment. To identify the proteins interacting with Tat-binding protein-1 (TBP1), we used the Clonotech Gal4 matchmaker two-hybrid system. RESULTS: Minimal to moderate reduction in phosphotyrosine (pTyr) content was observed in SK-BR-3 and T6-17 cells with short-term (10-30 minutes) incubation after mAb treatment, but that did not alter total p185HER2/neu receptor density. SIRPs phosphorylation after peptide treatment was increased. With mAb treatment, three proteins were shown to interact with TBP1, and all of the interacting proteins are subunits of proteasome 26S. Collectively, anti- p185HER2/neu mAb or peptide down-regulates the surface receptors and attenuates the kinase signaling, which then both induces higher proteasome activity through increased TBP1 and increases SIRPs expres sion. CONCLUSION: Increased proteasomal activity may degrade abnormal proteins and increased SIRPs may regulate signal transduction toward the norm. Therefore, activation of a protein-degradation pathway and induction of signal-regulatory proteins may be possible mechanisms for the ultimate anti-tumor effects of the anti-p185HER2/neu mAb or peptide.
Antibodies, Monoclonal ; Blotting, Western ; Down-Regulation ; Humans ; Immunoprecipitation ; Phosphorylation ; Phosphotransferases ; Phosphotyrosine ; Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex ; Signal Transduction