A long-held belief is that pituitary hormones bind to their cognate receptors in classical target glands to actuate their manifold functions. However, a number of studies have shown that multiple types of pituitary hormone receptors are widely expressed in non-classical target organs. Each pituitary gland-derived hormone exhibits a wide range of nonconventional biological effects in these non-classical target organs. Herein, the extra biological functions of pituitary hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and prolactin when they act on non-classical organs were summarized, defined by the novel concept of an "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis." This novel proposal explains the pathomechanisms of abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism, obesity, hypertension, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis while offering a more comprehensive and systematic insights into the coordinated regulation of environmental factors, genetic factors, and neuroendocrine hormones on human biological functions. The continued exploration of the physiology of the "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis" could enable the identification of novel therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases.
Humans ; Pituitary Hormones/metabolism* ; Luteinizing Hormone ; Follicle Stimulating Hormone ; Prolactin ; Pituitary Gland/metabolism*

OBJECTIVETo explore the endocrinal factors which influence the aggressive behavior of adolescents.

METHODSThe levels of cortisol (CORT), testosterone (T), prolactin (PRL), and growth hormone (GH) in saliva from 20 aggressive students and 20 non-aggressive control students were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The students were matched for their gender, age, grade, stage of pubertal development, and economic status of their families.

RESULTSThe salivary T levels were 22.20 +/- 14.50 pg/mL and 19.54 +/- 12.52 pg/mL in aggressive male and female students, 13.20 +/- 6.85 pg/mL and 5.24 +/- 3.03 pg/mL in non-aggressive male and female students (P < 0.05). The male aggressive students had a lower level of CORT in saliva than non-aggressive male students (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the salivary levels of PRL or GH between the aggressive and non-aggressive groups. Correlation analysis revealed a negative relationship in male students between the salivary CORT levels and the aggression factor scores of the child behavior checklist (CBCL). In addition, the data also showed a positive relationship between the salivary T levels and the aggression factor scores of CBCL in female students. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that the salivary CORT level was an independent predictive factor for aggressive behaviors in adolescent boys. The higher the CORT level, the less aggressive the boys were.

CONCLUSIONCORT and T levels may play a certain role in adolescent aggressive behaviors.

Adolescent ; Aggression ; Child ; Female ; Growth Hormone ; metabolism ; Humans ; Hydrocortisone ; metabolism ; Male ; Prolactin ; metabolism ; Saliva ; metabolism ; Testosterone ; metabolism

OBJECTIVETo investigate the effect of acupuncture on progesterone (P4) and prolactin (PRL) in rats of embryo implantation dysfunction (EID).

METHODSOn the first day of pregnancy, 72 female Wistar rats were randomly allocated into the normal group, the EID model group, the acupuncture group and the P4 group (18 in each group). The normal group was injected sesame oil, while the other three groups were given mifepristone to establish the EID model. The acupuncture group and the P4 group were given treatment of acupuncture and P4 injection, respectively. The serum of P4 and PRL were detected by radioimmunoassay, and the mRNA and protein expressions of P4 receptor (PR) and PRL receptor (PRLR) were detected using real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical method, respectively.

RESULTSCompared with the normal group, the serum levels of P4 and PRL as well as the mRNA and protein expression levels of PR and PRLR in the EID model group were significantly lowered (P<0.01 or P<0.05). The above indices in the acupuncture group and the P4 group were significantly elevated compared with the EID model group (P<0.01 or P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONAcupuncture can promote embryo implantation effectively, which might be related to the effects of acupuncture on upregulating the P4 and PRL levels in serum and the PR and PRLR expression levels in rats.

Acupuncture Therapy ; Animals ; Embryo Implantation ; Endometrium ; metabolism ; Female ; Gene Expression Regulation ; Immunohistochemistry ; Male ; Pituitary Gland ; metabolism ; Pregnancy ; Progesterone ; blood ; Prolactin ; blood ; RNA, Messenger ; genetics ; metabolism ; Rats, Wistar ; Receptors, Progesterone ; genetics ; metabolism ; Receptors, Prolactin ; genetics ; metabolism

OBJECTIVETo investigate the correlation of prolactin receptor (PRL-R) expression to estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) expressions in primary breast cancer.

METHODSFor 130 female patients with breast cancer (median age 46 years), PRL-R expression in the primary tumor was detected by immunohistochemistry, and the correlation between PRL-R and ER/PR expressions was analyzed statistically.

RESULTSPRL-R positivity in the primary tumor was found in 89 of the patients (68.5%), and the positivity rate for PRL-R was positively correlated to ER expression (P<0.05). Further stratification of the patients according to the CerbB-2 status revealed such a correlation only in CerbB-2-positive patients (P<0.05). In the patient cohort, no significant correlation was found in the positivity rate between PRL-R and PR expressions (P>0.05), but in CerbB-2-positive patients, the positivity rate of PRL-R showed a positive correlation to PR expression (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONThe positive correlations in positivity rate between the PRL-R and ER/PR expressions are found only in CerbB-2 positive patients with breast cancer, and the expressional status of CerbB-2 affects the correlation between PRL-R and ER/PR expression in breast cancer.

Adult ; Aged ; Breast Neoplasms ; metabolism ; Female ; Humans ; Middle Aged ; Receptor, ErbB-2 ; genetics ; metabolism ; Receptors, Estrogen ; metabolism ; Receptors, Progesterone ; metabolism ; Receptors, Prolactin ; metabolism

Pituitary carcinomas are rare primary adenohypophyseal tumors with cerebrospinal or extracranial metastasis. The present case, the first report of the disease in Korea, involved a 36-yr-old woman who presented with a 3-week history of headache. Brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed a 2.5-cm sellar and suprasellar mass showing heterogeneous enhancement with suspicious invasion of both cavernous sinuses. The patient underwent gross-total resection. The tumor cells were composed of polygonal cells singly or in variable-sized nests. The nuclei were large and round with prominent nucleoli. The cytoplasms was acidophilic and granular. Marked pleomorphism and frequent mitoses (3 per 10 HPFs) were found. By immunohistochemistry, tumor cells were strongly positive for prolactin, but negative for ACTH and GH. Additional immunostainings for cytokeratin, vimentin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were negative. After the surgery, the patient received radiotherapy because of the atypical histologic features. The prolactin level fell from 123.17 ng/mL to 5.17 ng/mL after surgery. Nine months after the initial diagnosis, the patient died from mandibular metastasis associated with the pituitary carcinoma.
Adult ; Female ; Humans ; Immunohistochemistry ; Magnetic Resonance Imaging ; Mandibular Neoplasms/diagnosis/metabolism/pathology/*secondary ; Pituitary Neoplasms/diagnosis/metabolism/*pathology ; Prolactin/metabolism ; Prolactinoma/diagnosis/metabolism/pathology/secondary

BACKGROUNDOur earlier studies indicate that melatonin inhibits the proliferation of prolactinoma and induces apoptosis of pituitary prolactin-secreting tumor in rats. Melatonin has also been shown to induce apoptosis and to reduce the production of ATP in breast tumor cells. This study analyzed the levels of the four mitochondrial respiratory complexes and the production of ATP and also the effects of melatonin treatment of prolactinoma.

METHODSIn the in vivo study, mitochondria were harvested from control pituitaries or prolactinoma collected from the pituitaries of melatonin- and 17-β-estradiol (E2)-treated male rats. In the in vitro study, prolactinoma cells mitochondria were harvested. Activities of the four mitochondrial respiratory complexes were assayed using fluorometer. ATP production of prolactinoma cells was estimated using bioluminescent methods.

RESULTSElevated levels of four mitochondrial respiratory complexes activities and ATP production were recorded in prolactinoma cells. Moreover, in both in vivo and in vitro studies, melatonin inhibited the activities of mitochondrial respiratory complexes and the production of ATP in prolactinoma cells.

CONCLUSIONSThere is a link between mitochondrial function increase and tumorigenesis. Melatonin induces apoptosis of pituitary prolactin-secreting tumor of rats via the induction of mitochondrial dysfunction and inhibition of energy metabolism.

Adenosine Triphosphate ; metabolism ; Animals ; Estradiol ; therapeutic use ; Male ; Melatonin ; therapeutic use ; Mitochondria ; drug effects ; metabolism ; Prolactin ; metabolism ; Prolactinoma ; drug therapy ; metabolism ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley

Amyloid ; metabolism ; Humans ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Pituitary Neoplasms ; metabolism ; pathology ; surgery ; Plaque, Amyloid ; pathology ; Prolactin ; secretion ; Prolactinoma ; metabolism ; pathology ; surgery ; Synaptophysin ; metabolism

AIMTo determine the exact roles of prolactin (PRL) in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and supply experimental basis for clinical treatment of RA, and to investigate the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in the synovium of adjuvant arthritis rats.

METHODSForty rats were divided into four groups (n = 10): (1) Normal control group (group A); (2) Adjuvant arthritis control group (group B); (3) Hyperprolactinemic adjuvant arthritis group (group C); (4) Hypoprolactinemic adjuvant arthritis group (group D). The content of PRL in the serum was detected by radio-immunoassay method. The activity of MMP-9 was analyzed by gelatin zymography. The alteration of MMP-9 immunoreactivity were investigated by means of immunohistochemistry in the synovium of all groups. The expressions of MMP-9 were investigated by Western blot in the synovium of all groups.

RESULTSCompared with group A, the activity and expression of MMP-9 of group B in the synovium were highly increased. The activity and expression of MMP-9 in the synovium were the most distinctive in group C. Compared with group B, the activity and expression of MMP-9 in the synovium were decreased in group D, but still higher than group A.

CONCLUSIONThe present results indicated that PRL might involved in the pathogenesis of RA by regulating the secretion of MMP-9 in the synovium.

Animals ; Arthritis, Experimental ; metabolism ; Arthritis, Rheumatoid ; physiopathology ; Male ; Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 ; genetics ; metabolism ; Prolactin ; blood ; physiology ; Random Allocation ; Rats ; Rats, Wistar ; Synovial Membrane ; metabolism

OBJECTIVETo explore the relationship between sexual hormones in semen and germ cell apoptosis in male population.

METHODSSixty-six infertile patients and thirty fertile males were selected randomly. The levels of folicle stimulating hormone ( FSH), prolactin (PRL), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone (T) in semen were measured by ELISA. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated UTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) was used for the detection of germ cell apoptosis.

RESULTSThe levels of FSH, LH, PRL, T in thirty fertile men were (1.63 +/- 0.15) U/L, (2.18 +/- 0.21) U/L, (6.34 +/- 0.30) nmol/L, (1.85 +/- 0.11) nmol/L, respectively, and germ cell apoptosis rate was (4.61 +/- 1.23)%. FSH, LH, PRL, T levels in infertile group were (1.25 +/- 0.18) U/L, (1.76 +/- 0.32) U/L, (5.86 +/- 0.13) nmol/l, (1.45 +/- 0.13) nmol/, respectively, and germ cell apoptosis rate was (18.36 +/- 2.04)%. There were significant differences in all parameters between infertile group and fertile group. The levels of FSH, LH, PRL, T were negatively correlated with germ cell apoptosis rates( r = -0.88, -0.93, -0.90, -0.98). The volume of apoptotic germ cell decreased, and chromatin was compacted to form cell-membrane blebs and apoptotic bodies.

CONCLUSIONLow concentration of sexual hormones may increase the apoptosis of germ cells, which can induce male infertility.

Adult ; Apoptosis ; Case-Control Studies ; Follicle Stimulating Hormone ; metabolism ; Germ Cells ; pathology ; Gonadal Steroid Hormones ; metabolism ; Humans ; Infertility, Male ; metabolism ; pathology ; Luteinizing Hormone ; metabolism ; Male ; Prolactin ; metabolism ; Semen ; metabolism ; Testosterone ; metabolism

OBJECTIVETo explore the laws of anovulatory infertility patients of Gan-yin deficiency syndrome (GYDS), and to analyze the correlation between GYDS and partial sex hormones and metabolic parameters.

METHODSRecruited were 103 anovulatory infertility patients, including 48 of GYDS and 55 of non-GYDS. At the same time, 20 healthy pluripara at the child-bearing period were recruited as the control group. The body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip ratio (WHR) were measured. Serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone (T), prolactin (PRL), estradiol (E2), sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting insulin (FINS), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), and leptin were detected. The inter-group difference of the above indices was compared between the two groups.

RESULTSLevels of BMI, FINS, HOMA-IRI, leptin, TC, TG, LDL-C, T, PRL, and LH were higher in the GYDS group and the non-GDS group than in the control group (P < 0.01, P < 0.05), while SHBG was lower in the GYDS group and the non-GYDS group than in the control group (P < 0.01). Only the PRL level was higher in the GYDS group than in the non-GYDS group (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONSGan-yin deficiency is a predominant manifestation in anovulatory infertility patients. Partial disorder of some sex hormones and metabolic derangement might be common pathological factors for anovulatory infertility, while increased PRL levels was dominant in GYDS.

Adult ; Anovulation ; metabolism ; Body Mass Index ; Case-Control Studies ; Female ; Gonadal Steroid Hormones ; blood ; Humans ; Infertility, Female ; metabolism ; Lipids ; blood ; Prolactin ; blood ; Yin Deficiency