The morbidity of neurodegenerative diseases are increased in recent years, however, the treatment is limited. Poly ADP-ribosylation (PARylation) is a post-translational modification of protein that catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). Studies have shown that PARylation is involved in many neurodegenerative diseases such as stroke, Parkinson's diseases, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and so on, by affecting intracellular translocation of protein molecules, protein aggregation, protein activity, and cell death. PARP inhibitors have showed neuroprotective efficacy for neurodegenerative diseases in pre-clinical studies and phase Ⅰ clinical trials. To find new PARP inhibitors with more specific effects and specific pharmacokinetic characteristics will be the new direction for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This paper reviews the recent progress on PARylation in neurodegenerative diseases.
ADP-Ribosylation ; Humans ; Neurodegenerative Diseases ; physiopathology ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases ; metabolism

Poly ADP-ribose polymerase inhibitors (PARPi), which approved in recent years, are recommended for ovarian cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer and other cancers by The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) and Chinese Society of Clinical Oncology (CSCO) guidelines. Because most of PARPi are metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzyme system, there are extensive interactions with other drugs commonly used in cancer patients. By setting up a consensus working group including pharmaceutical experts, clinical experts and methodology experts, this paper forms a consensus according to the following steps: determine clinical problems, data retrieval and evaluation, Delphi method to form recommendations, finally formation expert opinion on PARPi interaction management. This paper will provide practical reference for clinical medical staff.
Male ; Female ; Humans ; Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase Inhibitors/pharmacology* ; Consensus ; Ovarian Neoplasms/drug therapy* ; Drug Interactions ; Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose/therapeutic use*

BACKGROUND: The pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) is dopaminergic cell death in the substantia nigra (SN), but the cause of cell death is unknown. 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is one of the neurotoxins used in experimental models of PD, and its use has led to greater understanding of the pathogenesis of PD. The present study examined the role of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) in 6-OHDA toxicity. METHODS: An in-vitro study was performed using PC12 cells. After treatment with 6-OHDA, the poly(ADP-ribosyl) ation was monitored using a monoclonal antibody to poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) to examine the PARP activity. To evaluate the effect of the PARP inhibition in 6-OHDA-induced cell death, 3-aminobenzamide or nicotinamide was administered 30 minutes before 6-OHDA treatment. An in-vivo study was performed using a Parkinson rat model. 6-OHDA was stereotactically injected into the unilateral SN of rats. PAR immunolabeling was used to examine the time-dependent activation of PARP. The dopaminergic cell death in the SN was quantified using apomorphine-induced rotations and tyrosine hydroxylase- immunoreactive cell numbers in the SN 2 weeks after lesioning. RESULTS: Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of nuclear proteins was maximal at 6 hr, and was still present 24 hr after 6-OHDA treatment. Pretreatment of 3-aminobenzamide or nicotinamide significantly attenuated the 6-OHDA-induced PC12 cell death. In 6-OHDA injected rats, PAR formation was seen 6 hr after 6-OHDA injection, peaked at 12 hr, and was still detectable at 24 hr. The dopaminergic cell death in the SN was significantly decreased by intraperitoneal injection of nicotinamide in 6-OHDA injected rats. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide evidence suggesting an involvement of the PARP in 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic cell death, and inhibitors of PARP may have a protective benefit in PD.
Animals ; Cell Count ; Cell Death* ; Dopaminergic Neurons* ; Injections, Intraperitoneal ; Models, Animal ; Models, Theoretical ; Neurotoxins ; Niacinamide ; Nuclear Proteins ; Oxidopamine* ; Parkinson Disease ; PC12 Cells ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases ; Rats ; Substantia Nigra ; Tyrosine

Enhanced oxidative stress is a hallmark of cisplatin nephrotoxicity, and inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) attenuates oxidative stress during cisplatin nephrotoxicity; however, the precise mechanisms behind its action remain elusive. Here, using an in vitro model of cisplatin-induced injury to human kidney proximal tubular cells, we demonstrated that the protective effect of PARP1 inhibition on oxidative stress is associated with sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) activation. Exposure to 400 µM cisplatin for 8 hours in cells decreased activity and expression of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and SIRT3, while it increased their lysine acetylation. However, treatment with 1 µM PJ34 hydrochloride, a potent PARP1 inhibitor, restored activity and/or expression in those antioxidant enzymes, decreased lysine acetylation of those enzymes, and improved SIRT3 expression and activity in the cisplatin-injured cells. Using transfection with SIRT3 double nickase plasmids, SIRT3-deficient cells given cisplatin did not show the ameliorable effect of PARP1 inhibition on lysine acetylation and activity of antioxidant enzymes, including MnSOD, catalase and GPX. Furthermore, SIRT3 deficiency in cisplatin-injured cells prevented PARP1 inhibition-induced increase in forkhead box O3a transcriptional activity, and upregulation of MnSOD and catalase. Finally, loss of SIRT3 in cisplatin-exposed cells removed the protective effect of PARP1 inhibition against oxidative stress, represented by the concentration of lipid hydroperoxide and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine; and necrotic cell death represented by a percentage of propidium iodide–positively stained cells. Taken together, these results indicate that PARP1 inhibition protects kidney proximal tubular cells against oxidative stress through SIRT3 activation during cisplatin nephrotoxicity.
Acetylation ; Catalase ; Cell Death ; Cisplatin* ; Deoxyribonuclease I ; Down-Regulation* ; Glutathione Peroxidase ; Humans ; In Vitro Techniques ; Kidney ; Lipid Peroxides ; Lysine ; Oxidative Stress* ; Plasmids ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose* ; Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases* ; Propidium ; Sirtuin 3* ; Superoxide Dismutase ; Transfection ; Up-Regulation

After renal injury, selective damage occurs in the proximal tubules as a result of inhibition of glycolysis. The molecular mechanism of damage is not known. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activation plays a critical role of proximal tubular cell death in several renal disorders. Here, we studied the role of PARP on glycolytic flux in pig kidney proximal tubule epithelial LLC-PK1 cells using XFp extracellular flux analysis. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation by PARP activation was increased approximately 2-fold by incubation of the cells in 10 mM glucose for 30 minutes, but treatment with the PARP inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB) does-dependently prevented the glucose-induced PARP activation (approximately 14.4% decrease in 0.1 mM 3-AB-treated group and 36.7% decrease in 1 mM 3-AB-treated group). Treatment with 1 mM 3-AB significantly enhanced the glucose-mediated increase in the extracellular acidification rate (61.1±4.3 mpH/min vs. 126.8±6.2 mpH/min or approximately 2-fold) compared with treatment with vehicle, indicating that PARP inhibition increases only glycolytic activity during glycolytic flux including basal glycolysis, glycolytic activity, and glycolytic capacity in kidney proximal tubule epithelial cells. Glucose increased the activities of glycolytic enzymes including hexokinase, phosphoglucose isomerase, phosphofructokinase-1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, enolase, and pyruvate kinase in LLC-PK1 cells. Furthermore, PARP inhibition selectively augmented the activities of hexokinase (approximately 1.4-fold over vehicle group), phosphofructokinase-1 (approximately 1.6-fold over vehicle group), and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (approximately 2.2-fold over vehicle group). In conclusion, these data suggest that PARP activation may regulate glycolytic activity via poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in kidney proximal tubule epithelial cells.
Animals ; Cell Death ; Epithelial Cells* ; Glucose ; Glucose-6-Phosphate Isomerase ; Glycolysis ; Hexokinase ; Kidney* ; LLC-PK1 Cells ; Oxidoreductases ; Phosphofructokinase-1 ; Phosphopyruvate Hydratase ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose* ; Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases* ; Pyruvate Kinase ; Swine

PURPOSE: To evaluate the anti-fibrotic effects of nilotinib on the survival of cultured human Tenon's capsule fibroblasts (HTFs). METHODS: HTF primary cultures were obtained from samples following glaucoma surgery. Primarily cultured HTFs were exposed to 1, 5, 10, and 20 µM nilotinib for 24 hours. The effects of nilotinib on HTF proliferation and cell viability were determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazone-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay, and apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry using annexin-V/propidium iodide (PI) double staining. Apoptosis-related proteins were detected by western blotting. RESULTS: The MTT assay showed that nilotinib induced an inhibition of HTF proliferation at concentrations of 10 and 20 µM (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). Annexin V/PI double staining showed significantly increased apoptosis in cells treated with nilotinib. Nilotinib activated caspase-3, -9, and poly adenosine diphosphate ribose polymerase cleavage, and downregulated the expression of B-cell lymphoma-extra large and Bax, which indicated that nilotinib-induced apoptosis was partly mediated through the mitochondrial pathway. In addition, treatment with nilotinib decreased the expression of α-smooth muscle actin and transforming growth factor-β. CONCLUSIONS: Nilotinib decreased cell survival of cultured HTFs and induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. The results suggested that nilotinib may exert antiproliferative effects on HTFs, making it a possible agent to control postoperative fibrosis in patients undergoing glaucoma surgery.
Actins ; Apoptosis ; B-Lymphocytes ; Blotting, Western ; Caspase 3 ; Cell Survival ; Fibroblasts ; Fibrosis ; Flow Cytometry ; Glaucoma ; Humans ; In Vitro Techniques ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Tenon Capsule

BACKGROUND: A major pathway leading toward neuronal injury following ischemia-reperfusion of the brain involves elevation of extracellular glutamate and activation of glutamate receptors, with a subsequent increase in intracellular calcium, resulting in a generation of free radicals. Oxygen free radicals cause brain injury following resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Oxyradicals produce strand breakage in DNA, which triggers energy-consuming DNA repair mechanisms and activates the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase(PARS). However, excessive PARS activation leads to energy depletion and exacerbation of neuronal damage in cerebral ischemia. METHODS: We investigated the effect of a potent, free-radical scavenger, N-acetylcysteine(NAC), on hippocampal neuronal death in an asphyxial cardiac arrest model of rats. The effect of NAC on hippocampal neuronal death was studied in 32 rats which were subjected to asphyxial cardiac arrest for 7 minutes, followed by resuscitation. The animals were divided into four group(8 rats in each group) as follows: Group I was saline treated for 3 days, Group II was NAC treated for 3 days, Group III was saline treated for 6 days, and Group IV was NAC treated for 6 days. In the NAC-treated groups, NAC(150 mg/kg) was intravenously injected after return of spontaneous circulation. The coronal sections with hippocampus levels were stained with hematoxylin-eosin(H-E) and PARS antibodies at 3 and 6 days after survival. In addition, the levels of myeloperoxidase(MPO) and malondialdehyde(MDA) were determined in the brains of each group. RESULTS: The results are as follows: 1. MPO and MDA levels were significantly lower in the NAC-treated groups, II and IV, than in the saline-treated groups, I and III. 2. The histologic damage score(HDS), as determined by H-E staining, was significantly lower in the NAC-treated groups, II and IV, than in the saline-treated groups, I and III. 3. In PARS immunohistochemical staining, the HDS was significantly lower in the NAC-treated groups, II and IV, than in the saline-treated groups, I and III. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a free-radical scavenger, N-acetylcysteine, may effectively prevent neuronal damages after reperfusion from asphyxial cardiac arrest in rats. Further studies will be required to examine both the mechanism of the action and the clinical application of NAC in patients with cardiac arrest.
Acetylcysteine* ; Animals ; Antibodies ; Brain ; Brain Injuries ; Brain Ischemia ; Calcium ; DNA ; DNA Repair ; Free Radicals ; Glutamic Acid ; Heart Arrest* ; Hippocampus ; Humans ; Neurons ; Neuroprotective Agents* ; Oxygen ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Rats* ; Receptors, Glutamate ; Reperfusion ; Reperfusion Injury ; Resuscitation

OBJECTIVE: This study is designed to evaluate the apoptotic signaling pathway of anticancer agent (cisplatin) on human malignant glioblastoma A172 and T98G cells, bearing wild type p53 and mutated p53, respectively. METHODS: The A172 and T98G glioblastoma cells were exposed to cisplatin and we investigated the cytotoxic effect in two different cell lines with cell viability(MTT assay), morphological study(agarose-gel electroporesis and Hoechst staining), and biochemical study(PCR, RT-PCR, Western blotting, caspase activity assay, and flow cytometry). RESULTS: Cisplatin had cytotoxicity of A172 cells in a time and dose-dependent manner. The nature of cytotoxicity by cisplatin was revealed as an apoptosis characterized by genomic DNA fragmentation in agarose electrophoresis as well as nuclear condensation by Hoechst staining in A172 cells. Cisplatin also resulted in the activation of caspase-9 and caspase 3-like proteases significantly, which eventually cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase(PARP) in A172 cells, but not in T98G cells. Interestingly, treatment with cisplatin was accumulated p21 and arrested cell cycle in A172 cells with time dependency. Furthermore, cisplatin-treated A172 cells resulted in change of membrane potential transition(MPT) of mitochondria and followed by cytosolic release of cytochrome c in time-dependent manner. In addition, transduction of ad-p53 significantly increased the cytotoxicity of cisplatin in T98G cells. CONCLUSION: Cisplatin induced apoptotic death of human glioblastoma A172 cells in p53 dependent manner. Furthermore, resistance of cisplatin in T98G cells, bearing mutated p53, was abolished by p53 protein expression and resulted in the apoptotic cell death.
Apoptosis* ; Blotting, Western ; Caspase 9 ; Cell Cycle ; Cell Death ; Cell Line* ; Cisplatin* ; Cytochromes c ; Cytosol ; DNA Fragmentation ; Electrophoresis ; Glioblastoma* ; Humans* ; Membrane Potentials ; Mitochondria ; Peptide Hydrolases ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Sepharose

OBJECTIVETo reveal the role of poly-ADP-ribosylation and DNA methylation in carcinogenic process induced induced by Cr (VI), and to discuss the relations between them.

METHODSThe pre-established Poly (ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) deficient cells and 16HBE cells were treated with different concentrations of Cr (VI), and the changes of total genomic DNA methylation level in different groups were detected by methylation immunofluorescent detection, as well as the changes of the activity of methyltransferases. Moreover, RT-PCR and western blotting method were applied to analyze the changes of expression of DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b and MBD2, upon the protein level.

RESULTSAfter treated by Cr(VI) for 24 h, the healthy 16HBE cells showed a significant lower level of genomic DNA methylation; however, there was no significant changes (P > 0.05) found in PARG deficient cells by immunofluorescence assay. When the dose of Cr (VI) reached 5.0 µmol/L, the activity of methyltransferases in 16HBE cells and PARG deficient cells (49.33 ± 2.65, 80.05 ± 2.05) decreased by 20% and 50% comparing with contrast group (99.27 ± 1.10, 99.30 ± 0.60) . After treated by Cr (VI) for 24 h, the expression of mRNA and protein level among DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b and MBD2 decreased significantly in healthy 16HBE cells; and the expression of DNMT1 and DNMT3a decreased in PARG deficiency cells. The relevant expression levels of mRNA of DNMT1 were separately (0.99 ± 0.09), (0.79 ± 0.10), (0.59 ± 0.13) and (0.39 ± 0.02) (F = 247.17, P < 0.01), the expression levels of protein were separately (1.00 ± 0.03), (0.69 ± 0.15), (0.65 ± 0.10) and (0.55 ± 0.13) (F = 214.12, P < 0.01), the expression levels of DNMT3a mRNA were separately (1.00 ± 0.04) , (0.93 ± 0.11) , (0.79 ± 0.07) , (0.59 ± 0.05) (F = 498.16, P < 0.01) , and the expression levels of protein were separately (1.00 ± 0.14) , (0.97 ± 0.11) , (0.79 ± 0.17) , (0.57 ± 0.15) (F = 390.11, P < 0.01) when the dose of Cr (VI) at 0, 0.3, 1.2 and 5.0 µmol/L. However, there were no significant changes of expression found in DNMT3b and MBD2.

CONCLUSIONPoly-ADP-ribosylation could regulate the activity of DNMT3b and MBD2, protect cells against the DNA methylation alteration induced by Cr(VI) and maintain the global genomic DNA methylation level.

Cell Line ; Chromium ; toxicity ; DNA (Cytosine-5-)-Methyltransferase 1 ; DNA (Cytosine-5-)-Methyltransferases ; metabolism ; DNA Methylation ; drug effects ; DNA-Binding Proteins ; metabolism ; Epithelial Cells ; metabolism ; Genome ; Humans ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; metabolism ; RNA, Messenger ; genetics

Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot is an edible green seaweed that belong to the Codiaceae family and has been used in Oriental medicine for the treatment of enterobiasis, dropsy, and dysuria. Methanol extract of codium fragile has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, although the anti-cancer effect on oral cancer has not yet been reported. In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer activity and the mechanism of cell death by methanol extracts of Codium fragile (MeCF) on human FaDu hypopharyngeal squamous carcinoma cells. Our data showed that MeCF inhibits cell viability in a dose-dependent manner, and markedly induced apoptosis, as determined by the MTT assay, Live/Dead assay, and DAPI stain. In addition, MeCF induced the proteolytic cleavage of procaspase −3, −7, −9 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase(PARP), and upregulated or downregulated the expression of mitochondrial-apoptosis factor, Bax(pro-apoptotic factor), and Bcl-2(anti-apoptotic factor), . Futhermore, MeCF induced a cell cycle arrest at the G1/S phase through suppressing the expression of the cell cycle cascade proteins, p21, CDK4, CyclinD1, and phospho-Rb. Taken together, these results indicated that MeCF inhibits cell growth, and this inhibition is mediated by caspase- and mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathways through cell cycle arrest at the G1/S phase in human FaDu hypopharyngeal squamous carcinoma cells. Therefore, methanol extracts of Codium fragile can be provided as a novel chemotherapeutic drug due to its growth inhibition effects and induction of apoptosis in human oral cancer cells.
Apoptosis ; Carcinoma, Squamous Cell ; Cell Cycle Checkpoints ; Cell Cycle ; Cell Death ; Cell Survival ; Dysuria ; Edema ; Enterobiasis ; Humans ; Hypopharynx ; Medicine, East Asian Traditional ; Methanol ; Mouth Neoplasms ; Poly Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose ; Seaweed