Mongolia is a huge, landlocked, middle-Asian country bordering Russia in the north, and China in the south. Mongolia was under socialism from 1921 to 1990, and its political system has started moving toward capitalistic democratism in 1990. The history of the Mongolian Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery can be divided into four periods; the incipient period(1956~1971), the period of early development(1971~1981), the period of active development(1981~1991), and the period of reformation(1991~). Mongolian Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery had been developed by the cooperation of Soviet Union and Eastern European countries before the 1990s, but the role of Korea, Japan, and western countries has been increasing from the 1990s. In Mongolia Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery is well recognized to the people and is considered as one of the specialized medical field. There are specialized departments of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery in State Central Hospital, Child & Maternal Research and Clinical Center, and Oncology Center in Ulaanbaatar. Now, the basic knowledge and surgical technique of the Mongolian Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons are satisfactory. But because of the difficult social and economic situation, there is a shortage of surgical instruments and materials, and acquirement of new knowledge is not easy. In 1998 the Mongolian Association of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons was established and its members want to have international relationship to keep up with the new medical information. Mongolia and Korea have ethnic, linguistic and cultural similarity, so the interchange and cooperation between Mongolian and Korean Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeons are recommended to make a beautiful one-world.
Child ; China ; Humans ; Japan ; Korea ; Linguistics ; Mongolia ; Political Systems ; Russia ; Socialism ; Surgery, Oral* ; Surgical Instruments ; USSR

This article explores the medical system of the Koryo Dynasty period and its social characteristics. First, the structure of medical system and roles of medical institutions during the Koryo Dynasty period will be summarized. Then, the characteristics of the medical system will be identified through exploring the principles of its formation in a view of social recognition of medical care and a view of public policy. During the Koryo Dynasty period, medical experts were trained in national education institutions from the early days of Dynasty. After trained, they were appointed to the posts at government service with their medical profession. In the meantime, they sought ways to ascend their social position. Physicians of Oriental medicine were appointed to the posts at each local government and troops to take charge of medical treatments of the common people. Also, the state tried to assume the reins of medical system by actively taking part in circulation (collection and distribution) of herb. Taeuigam and Sangyakguk represent central medical institutions of the Koryo, taking charge of medical service for the aristocracy and the bureaucracy. The Common people were treated at DongSeoDaeBiWOn, JeWuiBo, HyeMinGuk, and YakJum in SeoKyung. However, activities of these institutions became less active around the days of military officials regime, as officers became negligent and financial base went broken. The roles of medical institutions of the Koryo government were not restricted to the treatment of diseases. Policies for the common people were constituted by two main policies, the policy for encouraging agriculture and the policy for giving relief to people. Medical institutions, with other social systems, had a social responsibility to support the governing system of the Koryo and maintain the stability of the society. In this aspect, medical institutions such as DongSeoDaeBiWon and JeWuiBo, and relief institutions such as UiChang, were all related and connected organically, and they were results of, and bases of the relief policy. However, medical system for the common people was made up first for practical needs and then improved successively. Allocation of medical experts and execution of relief work were carried out by each local government, except the case of serious disaster, which central government took part in. As the Koryo Dynasty went into its latter period, temporary institutions and one - time benefits replaced permanent institutions. These four characteristics described above were systemic characteristics of medical system during the Koryo Dynasty period.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, Medieval ; Korea ; *Medicine ; Political Systems/*history

Records of ethnic medicine in the Kokuryo, Baekjae and Shilla dynasties can be found in foreign literature, and evidence that a medicine unique to Korean was being developed in the Koryo dynasty can be found in Korean historical records. With the founding of Chosun, Hyang-yak medicine was established, and a medicine purely and uniquely Korean took root. The Chosun dynasty saw the development of a new form of medicine called Dong-Ui medicine, and an independent system emphasizing practicality was established as the new tradition of Korean medicine. Korean medicine continued in the Chosun dynasty without significant changes from the Koryo dynasty. However, tides of enlightenment brought Western medicine onto the shores of the Korean peninsula. Western medicine began to gain the recognition and trust of part of the royal court. Nonetheless, ordinary people still preferred Dong-Ui, Korean medicine, and they did not have a full understanding of Western medicine. As Chosun began to adopt enlightenment policies in the footsteps of Japan through the Kabo (1894) Revolution, Japan drove the Ching rulers out of the Korean peninsula and openly started interfering in Chosun's internal affairs. After repelling Russia, Japan's intervention in the Korean peninsula became even more aggressive, taking over Chosun's politics, diplomacy and military. Its encroachment on Chosun's sovereignty was at times even more cruel than during Japan's Meiji period.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, Ancient ; History of Medicine, Medieval ; History of Medicine, Modern ; Korea ; *Medicine ; Medicine, Traditional/*history ; Political Systems/*history

This paper aims to reveal how Hamheung Medical College in North Korea kept up its faculty with the trend of a new political system. The time period consists of three series of evaluations that occurred between the start of a reformation action in 1946 and the establishment of the regime in 1948. At the time, it was difficult to secure college faculty in the medical field, because of a serious shortage of medical personnel. Moreover, the problem in the recruitment of faculty at the medical college grew bigger since the members were required to have a high level of political consciousness. Then how did Hamheung Medical College accomplish this ideal securing of faculty that possessed political ideology and medical expertise? For the first time, a faculty evaluation at the local level was carried out and got rid of a few pro-Japanese or reactionary factions but maintained most of the faculty. Although academic background and research career of the faculty were considered, securing of the manpower in terms of number was crucial for the reconstruction of a professional school level. At the second time, as the central education bureau's intervention tightened the censorship, most of the faculty were evaluated as unqualified. Indeed, it was difficult to satisfy the standard of professionalism which emphasized a high level of academic career and political thought that included affiliation of Workers' Party of North Korea. The Medical College could not find faculty that could replace those professors and therefore, most of them maintained their faculty positions. Since then, the faculty who received excellent evaluations led the school at the very front. At the third time, the Medical College itself led the evaluations and implemented more relaxed standards of political ideology and medical expertise. Faculty who were cooperative to the reformation actions that North Korea carried forward or had working experience at the hospital and health service received a high level of recognition. Accordingly, the Medical College expanded itself by securing many professors, but also embodied a large gap of academic and ideological levels between them. Hence, the political ideology and medical expertise, which were set forth as the requirements for faculty, were constructed in the space of political ideal and social reality. Despite the high criteria the North Korean Government made, Hamheung Medical College's faculty fell below the average in terms of ideological and academic standards. As a way to compensate this, professors who greatly satisfied the both virtues were placed as leaders and, for supporting them, professors who taught the general education curriculum were recruited largely. And also, it appointed a large number of medical doctors who accumulated experiences in the field as new professors. Nevertheless, the Medical College struggled to raise the quality of medical education and was unable to prevent a part of its faculty from leaving to South Korea in the time of the Korean War. Thus, the political and academic virtues of the faculty at that time were not just simply about the professor individuals but were interrelated with the medical education and health care system in North Korea.
Consciousness ; Curriculum ; Delivery of Health Care ; Democratic People's Republic of Korea* ; Education ; Education, Medical ; Health Services ; Humans ; Korea ; Korean War ; Political Systems ; Virtues

The Oriental countries have had long histories and large populations. While they were the civilized country with the profound culture and thoughts, they were backward in material civilization bacause of their delayed development of science. Extending from the end of the 18th century to the 19th century the Western countries perturbed the Eastern countries with their sudden appearance. The Western countries visited the East with their threatening attitudes by giant war vessels and guns. They also strongly demanded to import their advanced daily commodities and the studies including the medical science. Since the most of the Eastern countries were too conservative, they resisted and rejected the Western forces at first. At that time, most Eastern countries located in the southern region of Asian continent were colonized by the West. The other countries in the nortern region came to realize that they were behind the West in material civilization, so had to open their door to the West through the foreign contact. China, Japan and Korea had to accept the Western culture and urged the civilization. Especially Japan adapted herself to new circumstances before others. She accepted the Western culture, thoughts and all studies actively with even reforming her political system. Starting from the yesr of 1868, Japan not only was reborn and formed independent position in the cultural region of China and Korea but also succeeded to construct the first westernized country among the Eastern countries and weekened the influence of China and Russia. Japan provoked and won wars such as the Sino-Japanese War {1894} and the Russia-Japanese War (1904). Follwing up these victories, Japan also occupied Korea in 1910, and the period of colonization had continued for 35 years until 1945 when Japan surrendered to the Allies at the end of the World War II. With these historical cirumstances, the purpose of this research paper is to collect the medical data, especially that of the anesthesia, and show its historical contributions through the documents. The long history of Korea had developed with the traditional and peculiar medical science, such as a herb medical science and a medical science in acupuncture and moxibustion. Korean medical science, however, has been greatly changed since 1876, the year of opening her door to Japan. There were two ways of introducing the Western medical science in Korea. As the indirect import, the japanese Western medical scince through the city of Busan was one. As the direct imports, the American medical science by an American missionary, Allen through the city of Incheon was the other. In these two currents of the Western medical science, it was natural that the Japanese one formed the main stream after 1910, the year of japanese occupation. The field of anestheia science was not an exception. Its developing process was no better than following the path of Japanese anesthesia science history. Comparing the Western developing history of anesthesia to that of Japan in general, there were a few ears difference in the level of quality between the East and the West until about 1930. Japanese anesthesia, however, fell behind over 20 years, comparing to the Western one, in the period from the late of 1930s to 1945. I believe that it is beyond the scope of this paper to explain and it leaves us with meaningful lessons.
Acupuncture ; Anesthesia* ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Busan ; China ; Civilization ; Colon ; Ear ; Firearms ; Humans ; Incheon ; Japan ; Korea* ; Missions and Missionaries ; Moxibustion ; Occupations ; Political Systems ; Rivers ; Russia ; World War II

In this article, I looked at the life of Yun Il-sun, a representative medical scientist of modern Korea, and examined the following problems. First, I took note of the position of the Korean people in the academic system of the Japanese colonial empire and restored the life of Yun Il-sun as specifically as possible. Yun was educated among Japanese people from elementary school to university. Although he received the best education at Old System High School and Imperial University and grew to be a prominent medical scientist, he could not overcome his identity as a colonized. Yun Il-sun, who moved from Keijo Imperial University to Severance Union Medical College, involved in activities founding of the Korean Medical Association and the Korean Medical Journal. Second, I the meaning of ‘culture’ to the intellectuals in the periphery. Old System High School and Imperial University where Yun Il-sun was educated were the hotbed of ‘culturalism.’ Yun's college days were the heyday of Taisho Democracy, and students were attracted to Marxism, Christian poverty movement, Buddhist cultivation movement and so on. Yun sought to overcome the ideological of young people through the acquisition of ‘culture.’ The ‘culture’ emphasized by Yun had an enlightenment characteristic that emphasized education, but it also functioned as a‘identity culture of educated elites.’ Third, I used the concept of ‘colonial academism’ and examined the aspects and characteristics of the colonial-periphery academic field, focusing on medicine. Yun Il-sun was a Korean professor at the Keijo Imperial University. He founded an academic society and published an academic journal for Koreans. He attempted to reproduce scholarship by doctoral dissertations. At the same time, several facts show that he was also in the affected area of ‘colonial academism’: the fact that he was kicked out of the Keijo Imperial University, the fact that the Korean Medical Association and the Korean Medical Journal were banned by Governor General, the fact that his students asked for doctoral degrees from Kyoto Imperial University where he studied. Yun Il-sun crossed the limits of ‘colonial academism’ and acted as the agent of empire. This was made possible by the characteristics of the academic discipline of medicine, the environment of the Severance Union Medical College, and personal traits of superior ability and indifference to politics. I the postcolonial evolution of the ‘colonial academism’ and ‘culturalism.’ The mix of continuity and discontinuity from ‘colonial academism’ and the hybrid of Japanese academism and American academism, the Korean characteristics of ‘postcolonial academism.’ Yun tried to harmonize the American academism with the Japanese academism and the purity of academism. This effort was revealed as an emphasis on basic medicine and natural sciences. As combined with culturalism and indifference to politics, he was recognized as the symbol of ivory tower and academism.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Colon ; Communism ; Democracy ; Education ; Fellowships and Scholarships ; Humans ; Japan* ; Korea ; Natural Science Disciplines ; Pathology ; Politics ; Poverty

OBJECTIVES: North Korean people's thought and opinions on their contry, society, and economy were studied through North Korean defectors. METHODS: At Hanawon, 163 defectors were surveyed with 2 questionnaires in May 2002. RESULTS: North Koreans believe that socialism it was a right choice for North Korea. Because of the gap between the ideal and economic reality, however admitted sense of frustration. They think that the communist value system and the communal consciousness have been shrinking gradually, and their attitude to South Korea was one of ambivalence. Peoples views are different according to age and institutional education they received. CONCLUSION: For the day of unification, we suggest the followings. First, South and North Korea should put in more effort for building a common nationalistic consciousness. Second, reasonable criticism against communism and the advantages of alternative systems which are expected to be accepted by North Koreans through education after unification, need to be prepared. Third, the development of psychological conflicts and the frustration of North Korean people after unification are anticipated and their solutions must be saught after. Fourth, continuos studies for the understanding of North Korean people's psychological characteristics and it's change is needed.
Communism ; Consciousness ; Democratic People's Republic of Korea ; Education ; Frustration ; Korea* ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Socialism

Very little information is available regarding psychiatry in North Korea, which is based on the legacy of Soviet psychiatry. This paper reviews the characteristics of psychiatry in former socialist countries and discusses its implications for North Korean psychiatry. Under socialism, psychiatric disorders were attributed primarily to neurophysiologic or neurobiological origins. Psychosocial or psychodynamic etiology was denied or distorted in line with the political ideology of the Communist Party. Psychiatry was primarily concerned with psychotic disorders, and this diagnostic category was sometimes applied based on political considerations. Neurotic disorders were ignored by psychiatry or were regarded as the remnants of capitalism. Several neurotic disorders characterized by high levels of somatization were considered to be neurological or physical in nature. The majority of "mental patients" were institutionalized for a long periods in large-scale psychiatric hospitals. Treatment of psychiatric disorders depended largely on a few outdated biological therapies. In former socialist countries, psychodynamic psychotherapy was not common, and psychiatric patients were likely to experience social stigma. According to North Korean doctors living in South Korea, North Korean psychiatry is heavily influenced by the aforementioned traditions of psychiatry. During the post-socialist transition, the suicide rate in many of these countries dramatically increased. Given such mental health crises in post-socialist transitional societies, the field of psychiatry may face major challenges in a future unified Korea.
Biological Therapy ; Capitalism ; Democratic People's Republic of Korea ; Hospitals, Psychiatric ; Humans ; Korea ; Mental Health ; Neurotic Disorders ; Psychotherapy, Psychodynamic ; Psychotic Disorders ; Social Stigma ; Socialism ; Suicide

Anton's syndrome is arguably the most striking form of anosognosia. Patients with this syndrome behave as if they can see despite their obvious blindness. Although best known for his description of asomatognosia and visual anosognosia, Gabriel Anton (1858-1933) made other significant contributions to the clinical neurosciences, including pioneering work in neurosurgery, neuropsychology, and child psychiatry. However, it has not been recognized in the English literature that Anton was also a dedicated advocate of eugenics and racial hygiene. This paper provides a case of Anton's syndrome and puts the works of Gabriel Anton into their historic context.
Blindness ; Blindness, Cortical ; Cerebral Infarction ; Child ; Child Psychiatry ; Endocarditis ; Eugenics ; Euthanasia ; Humans ; Hygiene ; National Socialism ; Neuropsychology ; Neurosciences ; Neurosurgery ; Strikes, Employee

It is very important to establish precisely the historical phases of nursing. We nurses should try to acquire the central social position in the health management system in the near the future, the 21st Century. Therefore my treatise aims to orient the desirable phase of the history of nursing through the feministic survey of the history of nursing from the post medieval epoche to the modern epoche. During the time of the renaissance which gave morning light to the modern epoche the antique Athenian thinking of sex was again revived. Athenian excluded the women from the public and autonomous regions. All the medical activity, once dominated by the women, was misfortunately regarded as superstition acted by witches. Accordingly, the nursing women were to hunted as witches. In short, in the early modern epoche, women began to be excluded from the history of medical activities. In the middle modern epoche characterized by the enlightenment movement and early capital economic system, capitalistic patriarchal system began to be formed by change in the economic system. The status of women began to be greatly dropped below by the social distinction of the private dimension of home and the public dimension of job. The woman was deprived of even the occasion to get the official license of medicine and medical institutions were handed to the states or the powerful and rich merchants. Accordingly, nursing acted mainly in the nunnery as the total approach to the patients was destructed wholly and transformed into the means of earning the money. Therefore unprepared low class-women began to engage in nursing only for the money. From then on, nursing activity was tunneled through the dark age for 200 years. In the late modern epoche characterized by the contrast of the accumulated vast capital by industrialization and vast poverty of the peoples, feminism began to float over the surface for the acquisition of equality of men and women from England. A feminist, Nightingale insisted that the women as nurses should be responsible for the healthy life of man. She tried the professional nursing education for women. Accordingly she not only contributed to the intellectual progress of women but also inspired in women the consciousness of the professional job. She tired to realize the ideal of at-that-time-feminists by engaging in nursing all through life. She really paved the road to contemporary nursing. In the near the future, I will write to describe how the late modern epoche nursing has fallen into the dilemma through the 1st and 2nd world wars and matured capitalism and to consider contemporary nursing with the status of women. All these papers aim to give proper recognition of nursing and right orientation of the future 21st Century nursing.
Capitalism ; Consciousness ; Education, Nursing ; England ; Female ; Feminism ; Hand ; History of Nursing ; Humans ; Licensure ; Male ; Nursing ; Poverty ; Superstitions ; Thinking ; World War II