This review article gives an overview of pneumonia in the Philippines, with focus on childhood pneumonia. Its primary objective is to provide information on epidemiology, etiology, economic burden, risk factors and prevention of pneumonia. A review of literature was done to gather information about the disease, with emphasis on local data. In the Philippines, pneumonia is the third leading cause of death across all ages and is the most common cause of death among children<5 years of age. A prospective study on Invasive Pneumococcal Disease conducted in the Philippines looked at the incidence of chest x-ray–confirmed pneumonia (N=5,940) in three hospitals over a 2-year period. The highest incidence was seen in those 28 days to <6 months of age at two sites and those 6–12 months of age in another site. Risk factors include not exclusively breastfeeding infants <6 months, undernutrition, zinc deficiency, crowding and exposure to indoor air pollution, low birth weight, poverty and socio-economic factors, presence of underlying comorbidities and immunodeficiency states. CAP ranks number one in processed Philippine Health Insurance (PhilHealth) claims, showing the huge economic burden. Therefore, rationalizing its management with simple standardized guidelines, exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months and continued breastfeeding with appropriate complementary feeding, improving indoor air pollution, and promoting vaccination are effective interventions.
Pneumonia ; Pneumococcal Infections

Child ; Humans ; Pneumonia, Pneumococcal ; Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is an important pathogen with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Pneumococcal vaccine is an important measure to reduce the pneumococcal disease burden. Currently, two pneumococcal vaccines are available in adults, including 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) and 13-valent pneumococcal protein-conjugate vaccine (PCV13). PCV13 consists of capsular polysaccharides derived from the 13 most common types that cause invasive diseases (serotypes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 6B, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F, 19A, and 23F). PPV23 covers 10 additional serotypes compared to PCV13, but it does not include serotype 6A. Even though limited in the number of serotypes, PCV13 has several important advantages over PPV23: T-cell dependent superior immunogenicity, booster effect, absence of hypo-responsiveness and protective effect on pneumonia. Although PPV23 is effective to prevent 50% to 80% of invasive pneumococcal diseases, it may be ineffective for high-risk immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. In adults, the choice of pneumococcal vaccine should be based on the severity of underlying medical conditions and local serotype distribution. Serotype distribution is quite variable temporally and geographically. Continuous sero-surveillance is essential for the establishment of optimal vaccination strategy.
Adult ; Humans ; Immunocompromised Host ; Mortality ; Pneumococcal Infections ; Pneumococcal Vaccines ; Pneumonia ; Polysaccharides ; Streptococcus pneumoniae ; T-Lymphocytes ; Vaccination

More than 100 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumonia have been identified, which has been one bottleneck problem for pneumococcal disease diagnosis, surveillance, development of pneumococcal vaccine and effectiveness evaluation of pneumococcal vaccines. Three categories of approaches for pneumococcal serotyping will be discussed including phenotyping based on anti-serum, biochemical typing based on pneumococcal capsular characteristics and genotyping based on pneumococcal capsular locus sequences. We reviewed the development and applications of different serotyping of pneumococcus to provide guidance for pneumococcal disease prevention and control.
Humans ; Serotyping/methods* ; Pneumococcal Infections/prevention & control* ; Pneumococcal Vaccines ; Streptococcus pneumoniae/genetics* ; Pneumonia

The 7-valent pneumococcal protein conjugate vaccine (PCV7) has been shown to be highly efficacious against invasive pneumococcal diseases and effective against pneumonia and in reducing otitis media. The introduction of PCV7 has resulted in major changes in the epidemiology of pneumococcal diseases. However, pneumococcal vaccines induce serotype-specific immunity, and a relative increase in non-vaccine serotypes has been reported following the widespread use of PCV7, leading to a need for extended serotype coverage for protection. PCV10 and PCV13 have been licensed on the basis of noninferiority of immunogenicity compared to a licensed conjugate vaccine. In this article, we aimed to review important data regarding the efficacy and effectiveness of the extended-coverage PCVs published or reported thus far and to discuss future implications for pneumococcal vaccines in Korea. After the introduction of PCV10 and PCV13, within a short period of time, evidence of protection conferred by these vaccines against invasive and mucosal infections caused by most of the serotypes included in the vaccines is accumulating. The choice of vaccine should be based on the changes in the dynamics of pneumococcal serotype distribution and diseases in the region where the vaccines are to be used. Continuous surveillance is essential for the appropriate use of pneumococcal vaccines and evaluation of the impact of PCVs on pneumococcal diseases.
Epidemiology ; Korea ; Otitis Media ; Pneumococcal Vaccines ; Pneumonia ; Vaccines ; Vaccines, Conjugate*

BACKGROUND: In January 2008, the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) published revised penicillin breakpoints for Streptococcus pneumoniae according to clinical presentation and the route of penicillin administration. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impacts of the new penicillin breakpoints on the susceptibility rates of S. pneumoniae isolated from blood. METHODS: A total of 156 non-duplicated S. pneumoniae strains recovered from blood of hospitalized patients were collected between January 2003 and December 2008. Penicillin and cefotaxime susceptibility tests were performed using an E-test (AB Biodisk, Solna, Sweden). Results of the penicillin susceptibility tests were analyzed using the former and new CLSI guidelines. RESULTS: Of the 156 S. pneumoniae strains isolated from blood, penicillin susceptibility under the former CLSI guidelines resulted in 42.3% susceptible, 42.3% intermediate, and 15.4% resistant states. According to the new CLSI guidelines (nonmeningitis, parenteral), 87.8% of isolates were susceptible, 9.6% were intermediate, and 2.6% were resistant to penicillin. CONCLUSION: When the new CLSI guidelines are applied, the penicillin susceptibility rate of S. pneumoniae strains isolated from blood is considerably increased. This suggests that penicillin should still be useful for the treatment of nonmeningeal pneumococcal infections and that the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials should not replace this treatment.
Cefotaxime ; Humans ; Penicillins ; Pneumococcal Infections ; Pneumonia ; Streptococcus ; Streptococcus pneumoniae

Patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are at higher risks of bacterial pneumonia than the general population, and the pathogen is the most commonly involved Streptococcus pneumoniae. We hereby report a case of pneumococcal pneumonia associated with leptomeningitis, osteomyelitis and epidural abscess in a patient with AIDS. He is being successfully treated with ampicillin/sulbactam and clindamycin. And because the pneumococcal infection is usually associated with morbidity and mortality rates in the setting of AIDS, we should consider for pneumococcal vaccinations among the AIDS populations.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ; Clindamycin ; Epidural Abscess* ; Humans ; Meningitis ; Mortality ; Osteomyelitis* ; Pneumococcal Infections ; Pneumonia* ; Pneumonia, Bacterial ; Pneumonia, Pneumococcal ; Streptococcus ; Streptococcus pneumoniae ; Vaccination

BACKGROUND: The incidence of penicillin-resistant streptococcus pneumoniae(PRSP) accounts for almost 70% of all pneumococcal pneumonia cases in Korea. It is still unclear as to whether the efficacy of penicillin or equally active beta-lactam agents is compromised in PRSP pneumonia. This study investigated the prevalence of PRSP in community-acquired pneumonia and its clinical course. METHODS: A total of 42 patients with community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia were evaluated from July 1999 to May 2001. The cultured strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae were divided into susceptible, intermediately resistant, and resistant strains by an E-test, and the effect of the clinical course was investigated. RESULTS: From a total of 42 patients, 22 (52.4%) patients had an intermediate resistance (MIC 0.1-1 microgram/ml) and six (14.3%) showed a high resistance (MIC> or =2.0 microgram/ml) with current penicillin susceptibility categories. However, according to the classification of the DRSPTWG (Drug Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group), there were 11 cases (26.2%) of intermediate resistance and no case of high resistance. Under empirical antimicrobial treatment, there was no difference in the clinical outcome between the penicillin susceptible and resistant group. CONCLUSION: The clinical outcome of PRSP pneumonia with empirical therapy was acceptable. These results suggest that the current MIC breakpoint for penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae has been set at a very low level and penicillin resistance according to the NCCLS classification does not significantly influence the outcome of the empirical treatment for pneumococcal pneumonia.
Classification ; Humans ; Incidence ; Korea ; Penicillin Resistance ; Penicillins ; Pneumonia ; Pneumonia, Pneumococcal* ; Prevalence* ; Prognosis ; Streptococcus ; Streptococcus pneumoniae

Pneumonia remains the leading cause of mortality in children. Diagnosis depends on a combination of factors, including clinical assessment, radiological and laboratory findings. Although Streptococcus pneumoniae remains the most important cause of childhood bacterial pneumonia, the great majority of cases of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are of viral etiology. A new, rapid, and inexpensive test that differentiates viral from bacterial pneumonia is needed to decide empiric antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics effective against the expected bacterial pathogens should be instituted where necessary. The role of emerging pathogens and the effect of pneumococcal resistance and heptavalent conjugate pneumococcal vaccines are to be considered in practice. There are reports supporting the valid and highly efficacious use of penicillin as a first-line drug for treating CAP. This review raises the issue of the overuse of unnecessary antibiotics in viral CAPs and the use of second or third-line antibiotics for non-complicated pneumonias in most clinical settings.
Anti-Bacterial Agents ; Child ; Humans ; Penicillins ; Pneumococcal Vaccines ; Pneumonia ; Pneumonia, Bacterial ; Streptococcus pneumoniae

BACKGROUND: The Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test (SPUAT) (Binax Now, USA) was developed for detecting polysaccharide C in urine samples for rapid diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia, the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). To validate positive results of these tests, we retrospectively investigated all positive results obtained from the emergency room of a Korean university hospital among patients with suspected CAP. METHODS: One hundred twenty-three positive SPUAT results were abstracted and analyzed from the authors' laboratory information system among the SPUAT results performed from 1,143 pneumonic patients admitted from the emergency room of a university hospital between 2007 and 2008. Medical records, including conventional microbiologic analysis results, were reviewed in detail for all positive test results. RESULTS: Among 123 patients with the positive SPUAT results, 24 patients were excluded due to hospitalization history during the preceding month. Nine of 99 patients (9.1%) with suspected CAP had confirmed pneumococcal pneumonia upon conventional sputum or blood culture. Thirty-five positive results (35.4%) showed other microorganisms upon conventional methods, which might be due to possible cross-reactivity. Among those, 23 positive results were considered bacterial pneumonic agents, and 12 positive results were regarded as urinary tract infection strains or contaminating agents. Fifty-five positive SPUAT results (55.6%) showed negative conventional microbiologic growth, and some positive SPUAT results might be caused by true pneumococcal infection although without cultural evidence. CONCLUSION: Our retrospective study demonstrated that a positive SPUAT result typically does not agree well with conventional culture methods, suggesting that the value of a positive SPUAT result in etiology determination may be limited under practical conditions in a university hospital.
Antigens, Bacterial ; Clinical Laboratory Information Systems ; Emergencies ; Hospitalization ; Humans ; Medical Records ; Pneumococcal Infections ; Pneumonia ; Pneumonia, Pneumococcal ; Retrospective Studies ; Sputum ; Streptococcus ; Streptococcus pneumoniae ; Urinary Tract Infections