The physiomic approach is now widely used in the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. There are two possible methods for cardiovascular physiome: the traditional mathematical model and the machine learning (ML) algorithm. ML is used in almost every area of society for various tasks formerly performed by humans. Specifically, various ML techniques in cardiovascular medicine are being developed and improved at unprecedented speed. The benefits of using ML for various tasks is that the inner working mechanism of the system does not need to be known, which can prove convenient in situations where determining the inner workings of the system can be difficult. The computation speed is also often higher than that of the traditional mathematical models. The limitations with ML are that it inherently leads to an approximation, and special care must be taken in cases where a high accuracy is required. Traditional mathematical models are, however, constructed based on underlying laws either proven or assumed. The results from the mathematical models are accurate as long as the model is. Combining the advantages of both the mathematical models and ML would increase both the accuracy and efficiency of the simulation for many problems. In this review, examples of cardiovascular physiome where approaches of mathematical modeling and ML can be combined are introduced.
Cardiovascular Diseases ; Diagnosis ; Humans ; Jurisprudence ; Machine Learning ; Models, Theoretical ; Patient-Specific Modeling

specific ischemia based on FFR was defined as significant at ≤0.8, as well as ≤0.75, and obstructive CTA stenosis was defined that ≥50%. The diagnostic performance of vFFR was compared to invasive FFR at both ≤0.8 and ≤0.75.RESULTS: The average computation time was 12 minutes per patient. The correlation coefficient (r) between vFFR and invasive FFR was 0.75 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 0.83], and Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean bias of 0.005 (95% CI −0.011 to 0.021) with 95% limits of agreement of −0.16 to 0.17 between vFFR and FFR. The accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were 78.0%, 87.1%, 72.5%, 58.7%, and 92.6%, respectively, using the FFR cutoff of 0.80. They were 87.0%, 95.0%, 80.0%, 54.3%, and 98.5%, respectively, with the FFR cutoff of 0.75. The area under the receiver-operating characteristics curve of vFFR versus obstructive CTA stenosis was 0.88 versus 0.61 for the FFR cutoff of 0.80, respectively; it was 0.94 versus 0.62 for the FFR cutoff of 0.75.CONCLUSION: Our novel, fully automated, on-site vFFR technology showed excellent diagnostic performance for the detection of lesion-specific ischemia.]]>
Angiography ; Bias (Epidemiology) ; Constriction, Pathologic ; Coronary Angiography ; Fractional Flow Reserve, Myocardial ; Humans ; Ischemia ; Patient-Specific Modeling ; Sensitivity and Specificity

OBJECTIVES: The association between obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and mortality or serious cardiovascular events over a long period of time is not clearly understood. The aim of this observational study was to estimate the clinical effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment on an outcome variable combining mortality, acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and cerebrovascular insult (CVI) during a follow-up period of 15.5 years (186 ± 58 months). METHODS: The data set consisted of 978 patients with an apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) ≥5.0. One-third had used CPAP treatment. For the first time, a data-driven causal Bayesian network (DDBN) and a hypothesis-driven causal Bayesian network (HDBN) were used to investigate the effectiveness of CPAP. RESULTS: In the DDBN, coronary heart disease (CHD), congestive heart failure (CHF), and diuretic use were directly associated with the outcome variable. Sleep apnea parameters and CPAP treatment had no direct association with the outcome variable. In the HDBN, CPAP treatment showed an average improvement of 5.3 percentage points in the outcome. The greatest improvement was seen in patients aged ≤55 years. The effect of CPAP treatment was weaker in older patients (>55 years) and in patients with CHD. In CHF patients, CPAP treatment was associated with an increased risk of mortality, AMI, or CVI. CONCLUSIONS: The effectiveness of CPAP is modest in younger patients. Long-term effectiveness is limited in older patients and in patients with heart disease (CHD or CHF).
Bayes Theorem ; Continuous Positive Airway Pressure* ; Coronary Disease ; Dataset ; Follow-Up Studies ; Heart Diseases ; Heart Failure ; Humans ; Mortality ; Myocardial Infarction ; Observational Study ; Outcome Assessment (Health Care) ; Patient-Specific Modeling ; Sleep Apnea Syndromes* ; Sleep Apnea, Obstructive ; Treatment Outcome