The very first record of ginseng in the Korean peninsula dates back to early 6th century A.D., with its concentration in Chinese sources. Regardless of the fact that the Korean ginseng was introduced to China before the birth of Christ, there is no writing about it for 500 years. This is because the Chinese substituted Korean ginseng for the Chinese one, which was cultivated around the Shangdang Area. The ginseng, however, is greatly influenced by natural environment and its native area being Manchuria and the Korean peninsula. It is believed that ginseng range from the northern mountains of Pyongando and Hamkyongdo provinces to the southern Taebaek and Sobaek mountains in Korea. Especially the area of Madasan (Baekdusan?) mountain was well-known for ginseng-growing district. The ginseng taxation of the Three Kingdoms period seems to have gone through certain changes along the development stages of the ancient state. The first taxation stage is estimated to be in the form of a tribute. Afterwards, as the governing power of central government was gradually strengthened in the subjugated places, there was a major replacement from tributary form to actual goods levy. The actual areas of such tributary collection is unknown, but the [Sejongshilok Chiriji] (geographical records of Sejong chronicles) of the early Choson era indicates 113 prefectures and counties as those which submit ginseng to the central government. These administrations provide permissible clues to the historic background of ginseng-taxed regions of the Three Kingdoms. The ginseng trade also is estimated to have flourished in ancient Korea through the Han commanderies of China. However, the writings of Korean ginseng trade is non-existent until 6th century A .D., Such phenomenon can be attributed to few reasons. First, the Chinese took little interest in Korean ginseng as they believed they had their own native ginseng in China. Second, same ignorance resulted from its inflowing but new feature. Third, active communication became impossible as the Goguryo-China relations deteriorated overall after the closing of the commanderies. Nevertheless, ginseng eventually was properly introduced into China as the relations between two regions improved after the 5th century A .D., which led the Chinese to realize the difference between Chinese and Korean ginseng. So it is estimated that such causes generated the real beginning of ginseng records in the 6th century. Based on the remaining texts, it can be inferred that trade in the Three Kingdoms era usually was conducted in each kingdom were all different, which was reflected in their respective contact with China. Such characteristics must have directly influenced their ginseng trade with China as well. For example, Shilla was only able to perform major ginseng commerce with China from the 7th century. There are various records of ginseng trade in Unified Shilla period, owing mostly to the previous tributary trade. Additionally, there is a case in which a certain individual presented Korean ginseng to a Chinese, as well as a case of Shilla ginseng trade in Japan. Aforementioned examples clearly illustrate that the fundamental structure of ginseng trade in East Asia was completed during the Unified Shilla period.
Commerce/*history ; English Abstract ; History, Ancient ; Korea ; Panax/*growth & development

The continuous cropping obstacle of Panax notoginseng is serious, and effective control measures are lacking. Soil disinfection with chloropicrin(CP) has been proven to be effective in reducing the obstacles to continuous cropping of other crops. In order to ascertain the effect of CP in the continuous cropping of P. notoginseng, this paper explored the influences of CP at different treatment concentrations(0,30,40,50 kg/Mu, 1 Mu≈667 m~2) on soil macro-element nutrients, soil enzyme activity, growth and development of P. notoginseng, and the accumulation of medicinal components. The results showed that CP fumigation significantly increased the content of total nitrogen, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and available phosphorus in the soil, but it had no significant effect on potassium content. The soil protease activity showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the prolonging of the treatment time. Both the soil urease and acid phosphatase activities showed a trend of first decreasing and then increasing with the prolonging of the treatment time. The higher the CP treatment concentration was, the lower the urease and acid phosphatase activities would be in the soil. The protease activity was relatively high after CP40 treatment, which was better than CP30 and CP50 treatments in promoting the nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium accumulation in P. notoginseng. The seedling survival rates after CP0, CP30, CP40, and CP50 tratments in October were 0, 65.56%, 89.44%, and 83.33%, respectively. Compared with the CP30 and CP50 treatments, CP40 treatment significantly facilitated the growth and development of P. notoginseng, the increase in fresh and dry weights, and the accumulation of root saponins. In summary, CP40 treatment accelerates the increase in soil nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients and their accumulation in P. notoginseng, elevates the seedling survival rate of P. notoginseng, enhances the growth and development of P. notoginseng, and promotes the accumulation of medicinal components. CP40 treatment is therefore recommended in production.
Fumigation ; Growth and Development ; Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated ; Panax notoginseng ; Soil

OBJECTIVETo reveal the flowering characteristics of Panax stipuleanatus and provide theoretical basis for distant hybridization between P. stipuleanatus and P. notoginseng.

METHODDuring the blossom of P. stipuleanatus, we observed and investigated blooming phenophase, growth dynamics of inflorescence, pollination and seed setting of its population and the flowering process and its period, the regularity of flowering and pollinating of the floret. Statistic analyses were carried out.

RESULT AND CONCLUSIONThe population florescence of P. stipuleanatus was about 60 d. The average florets quality of umbel was 44-47. The average natural pollination rates were 73.32%-95.39%. The average seed setting rates was 35.65%-51.76%. The highest growth periods of inflorescence are from March 25 to April 4. The diameter, the height and the length of its inflorescence in 10 d increased 44.65%, 42.19% and 106.25%, respectively. The whole stereotype period was the May beginning. The time that the floret from petal opening to withering it generally needed 36-48 h, 60 percent of the floret finished auther pollinating during the same day and 40 percent until the next day. The flowering and pollinating peak periods were 14:00-15:00, the flowering numbers was 28.48% of the total flowering amount and the pollinating numbers were 38.63% of the total pollinating amount. The high temperature (20-30 degrees C) and the low humidity (RH < 60%) were beneficial to flowering and pollinating.

Flowers ; growth & development ; physiology ; Inflorescence ; growth & development ; physiology ; Panax ; growth & development ; physiology ; Pollination ; Seeds ; physiology

OBJECTIVETo understand the embryo after-ripening phenomenon of Panax quinquefolium, the growth and development process of fruit and seed was investigated in this study.

METHODThe growth and development characteristics of fruit and seed were obtained by field observation, the morphological changes were measured with a vernier caliper, paraffin section was used as well.

RESULT AND CONCLUSIONThe plant reached the most flowering numbers in 5-8 d after initial blooming time and the lag phase of embryo occurred in about 70 d. The size, fresh and dry weight of fruit and seed were all reached maximum in fruit maturation period. As the result showed, the development of seed was stopped at torpedo form of embryos, this conclusion can be applied to explore the morphological after-ripening mechanism of P. quinquefolium seed.

Fruit ; anatomy & histology ; growth & development ; Panax ; anatomy & histology ; growth & development ; Seeds ; anatomy & histology ; growth & development

OBJECTIVETo optimize the culture condition of adventitious roots of Panax ginseng.

METHODThe adventitious roots were obtained through tissue culture by manipulation of inoculum, various sucrose concentrations and salt strength. The contents of ginsenosides Re, Rb1 and Rg1 were determined by HPLC while the contents of polysaccharides were determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometry.

RESULTThe multiplication of adventitious roots reached the peak when the inoculum was 20 g x L(-1). The effects of sucrose concentration and salt strength on adventitious roots were observed. The contents of polysaccharides were higher when the medium contained more sucrose. 40 g x L(-1) sucrose was favorable for roots growth and biosynthesis of Re, while 30 g x L(-1) was favorable for the biosynthesis of Rb1 and Rg1. 3/4MS medium was benefit for the growth of adventitious roots and the biosynthesis of ginsenosides. The contents of polysaccharides were decreased with the increase of salt strength.

CONCLUSIONThe results showed that inoculum, various sucrose concentrations and salt strength have significant influences on adventitious roots growth, secondary metabolite and polysaccharide synthesis in P. ginseng.

Culture Media ; pharmacology ; Panax ; drug effects ; growth & development ; metabolism ; Plant Roots ; drug effects ; growth & development ; metabolism

This paper is in order to study the anti-feeding and growth inhibition activity of toatal ginsenoside of ginseng stems and leaves against 4th-instar Mythimna separata larvae. Simulating natural growing condition indoors, on the base, To study the anti-feeding and growth inhibition activity of toatal ginsenoside against 4th-instar M. separata larvae by leaf disc test. The toatal ginsenoside appeared to be of significant antifeeding activity against 4th-instar M. separata larvae. The 4th-instar M. separata larvae fed on the leaves of Sorghum bicolor treated with 20, 10, 5 g · L(-1) toatal ginsenoside. At 8 h, non-selective anti-feeding rate were 88.67%, 64.40% and 47.36%, and selective anti-feeding rate were 62.49% , 44.29% and 34.19%; Compared with the photographic, The toatal ginsenoside conld make the development period had prolonged 13h in treated group. The toatal ginsenoside had significant inhibition effect on feeding and growth and development against 4th-instar M. separata larvae, and inhibition effect increases as the increase of concentration ginsenoside.
Animals ; Ginsenosides ; pharmacology ; Insecticides ; pharmacology ; Larva ; Moths ; growth & development ; Panax ; chemistry

Continuously cropping obstacle restricts ginseng production and rational use of land resource severely, and autotoxicity is one of the most important factors. In our previous work, ginseng autotoxin degrading bacteria were isolated, in the present re- search, plate culturing method and traditional physiological and biochemical method were used to analyze biological indices and protective enzyme activities, in order to elucidate the mitigative effect of autotoxin degrading bacteria on autotoxicity of P. ginseng. Results indicated that, except for palmitic acid, autotoxicity of benzonic acid, diisobutyl phthalate, diisobutyl succinate, and 2,2-bis (4- hydroxyphenyl) propane on the growth of ginseng seeds was significantly alleviated after autotoxins degrading bacteria was inoculated, and which have no evident difference with control. Except for benzoic acid, enzyme activity of SOD, POD and CAT in other autotoxin degrading treatments decreased significantly. The present research showed that, microbial degradation could alleviate the autotoxicity of autotoxins on ginseng seeds effectively, and which will be helpful for the resolution of ginseng continuously cropping obstacle problem.
Bacteria ; metabolism ; Panax ; enzymology ; growth & development ; metabolism ; microbiology ; Toxins, Biological ; metabolism

In order to discover light quality's effects on growth, photosynthesis and effective components content of Panax notoginseng, a pot experiment using 7 light qualities (red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, violet, and blue) was conducted. The growth, photosynthesis and content change of effective components were measured during plant growth. The results showed that light qualities had significant effect on plant growth, red light increased the plant height, while cyan, yellow, violet, and blue lights promoted accumulation of biomass underground, blue and yellow lights increased the photosynthesis, cyan light increased accumulation of ginsenoside Rd, yellow and cyan lights increased total effective components of individual plant.
Light ; Panax notoginseng ; growth & development ; metabolism ; radiation effects ; Photosynthesis ; radiation effects ; Plant Extracts ; analysis ; metabolism

OBJECTIVETo study effects of different interval year on Panax notoginseng plant soils middle and micro element content.

METHODThe dynamic change of Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, B from Mabai, Matang, Gumu and Panlong were determined under different planting patterns (new soil, interval 5 years soil and continuous cropping soil).

RESULTAll the micro elements (except Ca, Mg) of interval 5 years soil and continuous cropping soil were significantly higher than those of new soil. All the middle and micro elements (except B) of interval 5 years soil were significantly higher than those of the continuous cropping soil. Planting patterns had remarkable influence on the content of Mn, Cu, B, but not Zn Ca, Mg. Cu, Ca under the 3 planting patterns, and Zn under the continuous cropping pattern did not show significant quarter changes. B content increased with the elongation of implantation time. Zn in new soil and interval 5 years also increased with prolonging of planted time. Mg, Mn and Cu content reached to peak value on April next year, and reached to minimum on the end of this experiment. Compared with new soil, the proportion of Mn, Cu in total elements increased by 29%, 114%, Mg, B decreased by 18%, 38%, Zn and Ca changed slightly of interval 5 years soils; In continuous cropping soil, Mn, Cu and B increased by 50%, 120%, 22%, respectively, but Zn, Ca, Mg had no significant change.

CONCLUSIONContinuous cropping pattern could not induce the deficient of soil middle and micro elements, and thereafter might not result in continuous cropping obstacles. But the imbalance proportional of soil middle and micro elements in P. notoginseng plant soils may be one of the main reasons for continuous cropping obstacles.

China ; Kinetics ; Panax notoginseng ; growth & development ; Soil ; chemistry ; Time Factors ; Trace Elements ; chemistry

OBJECTIVETo compare the quality of red ginseng in different transplanting systems, and thus provide the basis for ginseng cultivation and processing.

METHODBased on the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and literature relating to red ginseng, the ten ginsenosides, total ash, acid-insoluble ash, volatile oil, ether extract and total protein of red ginseng in different transplanting systems were studied or determined.

RESULT AND CONCLUSIONThe content of total ash and acid-insoluble ash in red ginseng was less than 5.0%, 0.3%, respectively. The content of three ginsenosides (Rg1, Re, Rb1) was in accordance with the requirements of Chinese Pharmacopoeia version 2010, and the content of ten ginsenosides was significant different.

China ; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid ; Drugs, Chinese Herbal ; analysis ; Panax ; chemistry ; growth & development ; Quality Control