Peroxynitrite is a highly reactive nitrogen species and a potent inducer of apoptosis and necrosis in somatic cells. Peroxynitrite-induced nitrosative stress has emerged as a major cause of impaired sperm function; however, its ability to trigger cell death has not been described in human spermatozoa. The objective here was to characterize biochemical and morphological features of cell death induced by peroxynitrite-mediated nitrosative stress in human spermatozoa. For this, spermatozoa were incubated with and without (untreated control) 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1), in order to generate peroxynitrite. Sperm viability, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), externalization of phosphatidylserine, DNA oxidation and fragmentation, caspase activation, tyrosine nitration, and sperm ultrastructure were analyzed. The results showed that at 24 h of incubation with SIN-1, the sperm viability was significantly reduced compared to untreated control (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the MPT was induced (P < 0.01) and increment in DNA oxidation (P < 0.01), DNA fragmentation (P < 0.01), tyrosine nitration (P < 0.0001) and ultrastructural damage were observed when compared to untreated control. Caspase activation was not evidenced, and although phosphatidylserine externalization increased compared to untreated control (P < 0.001), this process was observed in <10% of the cells and the gradual loss of viability was not characterized by an important increase in this parameter. In conclusion, peroxynitrite-mediated nitrosative stress induces the regulated variant of cell death known as MPT-driven necrosis in human spermatozoa. This study provides a new insight into the pathophysiology of nitrosative stress in human spermatozoa and opens up a new focus for developing specific therapeutic strategies to better preserve sperm viability or to avoid cell death.

Peroxynitrite is a highly reactive nitrogen species and a potent inducer of apoptosis and necrosis in somatic cells. Peroxynitrite-induced nitrosative stress has emerged as a major cause of impaired sperm function; however, its ability to trigger cell death has not been described in human spermatozoa. The objective here was to characterize biochemical and morphological features of cell death induced by peroxynitrite-mediated nitrosative stress in human spermatozoa. For this, spermatozoa were incubated with and without (untreated control) 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1), in order to generate peroxynitrite. Sperm viability, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), externalization of phosphatidylserine, DNA oxidation and fragmentation, caspase activation, tyrosine nitration, and sperm ultrastructure were analyzed. The results showed that at 24 h of incubation with SIN-1, the sperm viability was significantly reduced compared to untreated control (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the MPT was induced (P < 0.01) and increment in DNA oxidation (P < 0.01), DNA fragmentation (P < 0.01), tyrosine nitration (P < 0.0001) and ultrastructural damage were observed when compared to untreated control. Caspase activation was not evidenced, and although phosphatidylserine externalization increased compared to untreated control (P < 0.001), this process was observed in <10% of the cells and the gradual loss of viability was not characterized by an important increase in this parameter. In conclusion, peroxynitrite-mediated nitrosative stress induces the regulated variant of cell death known as MPT-driven necrosis in human spermatozoa. This study provides a new insight into the pathophysiology of nitrosative stress in human spermatozoa and opens up a new focus for developing specific therapeutic strategies to better preserve sperm viability or to avoid cell death.
Adult ; Caspases/metabolism* ; Cell Death ; Enzyme Activation ; Humans ; Male ; Mitochondria/pathology* ; Necrosis ; Nitrosative Stress/physiology* ; Permeability ; Peroxynitrous Acid/pharmacology* ; Phosphatidylserines/metabolism* ; Spermatozoa/ultrastructure*