To conceptualize a novel bio-psychosocial-behavioral treatment model of panic disorder (PD), it is necessary to completely integrate behavioral, psychophysiological, neurobiological, and genetic data. Molecular genetic research on PD is specifically focused on neurotransmitters, including serotonin, neuropeptides, glucocorticoids, and neurotrophins. Although pharmacological interventions for PD are currently available, the need for more effective, faster-acting, and more tolerable pharmacological interventions is unmet. Thus, glutamatergic receptor modulators, orexin receptor antagonists, corticotrophin-releasing factor 1 receptor antagonists, and other novel mechanism-based anti-panic therapeutics have been proposed. Research on the neural correlates of PD is focused on the dysfunctional “cross-talk” between emotional drive (limbic structure) and cognitive inhibition (prefrontal cortex) and the fear circuit, which includes the amygdala-hippocampus-prefrontal axis. The neural perspective regarding PD supports the idea that cognitive-behavioral therapy normalizes alterations in top-down cognitive processing, including increased threat expectancy and attention to threat. Consistent with the concept of “personalized medicine,” it is speculated that Research Domain Criteria can enlighten further treatments targeting dysfunctions underlying PD more precisely and provide us with better definitions of moderators used to identify subgroups according to different responses to treatment. Structuring of the “negative valence systems” domain, which includes fear/anxiety, is required to define PD. Therefore, targeting glutamate- and orexin-related molecular mechanisms associated with the fear circuit, which includes the amygdala-hippocampus-prefrontal cortex axis, is required to define a novel bio-psychosocial-behavioral treatment model of PD.
Glucocorticoids ; Molecular Biology ; Nerve Growth Factors ; Neuropeptides ; Neurotransmitter Agents ; Orexin Receptor Antagonists ; Panic Disorder ; Panic ; Serotonin

OBJECTIVE: Suvorexant is a novel hypnotic drug that does not interact with the conventional γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A receptor. We investigated the method by which suvorexant was introduced in insomnia patients who were taking benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BzRA). METHODS: This was a retrospective study. We extracted clinical data for patients who were prescribed suvorexant and were already using BzRA. The patients were assigned to two groups, the switching and add-on groups. We assessed the suvorexant discontinuation rate at one month after the prescription of the drug. RESULTS: One hundred and nineteen patients were assigned to the switching group, and 109 were assigned to the add-on group. The add-on group exhibited a significantly higher all-cause discontinuation rate than the switching group (odds ratio, 2.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.5 to 5.0; adjusted p < 0.001). Intolerability was a significantly stronger risk factor for suvorexant discontinuation in the add-on group (22.0% vs. 7.6%, p < 0.002), and the most common adverse effect was oversedation. CONCLUSION: Our results show that the add-on of suvorexant increases the frequency of oversedation compared with switching in insomnia patients that are taking BzRA. However, this was only a preliminary retrospective study, and further studies will be required to confirm our findings.
Benzodiazepines* ; Humans ; Methods ; Orexin Receptor Antagonists ; Prescriptions ; Receptors, GABA-A* ; Retrospective Studies* ; Risk Factors ; Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders*

The present study was aimed to investigate the effects of orexin-A and orexin-1 receptor (OX1R) antagonist injected into the fourth ventricle of rats on food-intake and spontaneous physical activity (SPA). Obese rat model was induced by high fat diet. Different doses of orexin-A or SB334867, an OX1R antagonist, were injected into the fourth ventricle of obese and normal rats respectively. SPA and food intake were monitored for 4 h after injection in both light and dark environment. In the light measurement cycle, different doses of orexin-A significantly stimulated feeding and SPA in all injected rats, and the animals' responses showed a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05-0.01), and compared with those of normal rats, the orexin-A induced food intake and SPA were more pronounced in obese rats. In the dark measurement cycle, different doses of orexin-A had no obvious effect on food intake and SPA in both normal and obese rats (P > 0.05). In the light cycle, different doses of SB334867 significantly decreased food intake and SPA in all rats during 0-2 h and 2-4 h after injection (P < 0.05), but the food intake and SPA in obese rats were significantly greater than those of normal rats. In the dark cycle, different doses of SB334867 showed no obvious effect on food intake and SPA of normal and obese rats (P > 0.05). These results suggest that fourth cerebral ventricle nuclei may be one target for orexin-A and light condition may play an important role in orexin-A and OX1R physiological functional processes.
Animals ; Benzoxazoles ; pharmacology ; Diet, High-Fat ; Eating ; drug effects ; Fourth Ventricle ; Motor Activity ; drug effects ; Obesity ; Orexin Receptor Antagonists ; pharmacology ; Orexin Receptors ; Orexins ; pharmacology ; Rats ; Urea ; analogs & derivatives ; pharmacology

BACKGROUND: The trigeminal nucleus caudalis (Vc) is a primary central site for trigeminal transmitting. Noxious stimulation of the trigeminal nociceptors alters the central synaptic releases and neural expression of some inflammatory and trophic agents. Orexin-A and the orexin 1 receptor (OX1R) are expressed in pain pathways including trigeminal pain transmission. However, the the mechanism(s) underling orexin-A effects on trigeminal pain modulation have not been fully clarified. METHODS: Trigeminal pain was induced by subcutaneous injection of capsaicin in the upper lip in rats. The effect of trigeminal pain on cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the Vc of animals was determined by immunofluorescence. Subsequently, OX1R agonist (orexin-A) and antagonist (SB-334867-A) was administrated in the Vc to investigate the possible roles of the Vc OX1R on changes in COX-2 and BDNF levels following pain induction. RESULTS: The data indicated an increase in COX-2 and decrease in BDNF immuno-reactivity in the Vc of capsaicin, and capsaicin- pretreated with SB-334867-A (80 nM), groups of rat. However, the effect of capsaicin on COX-2 and BDNF expressions was reversed by a Vc microinjection of orexin-A (100 pM). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the present data reveals that orexin-A can attenuate capsaicin-induced trigeminal pain through the modulation of pain effects on COX-2 and BDNF expressions in the Vc of rats.
Animals ; Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor ; Capsaicin ; Cyclooxygenase 2 ; Facial Pain ; Fluorescent Antibody Technique ; Injections, Subcutaneous ; Lip ; Microinjections ; Nociceptors ; Orexin Receptor Antagonists ; Orexins ; Pain Measurement ; Pain Perception ; Rats ; Trigeminal Caudal Nucleus ; Trigeminal Neuralgia ; Trigeminal Nuclei