With the structural and functional neuroimaging studies on alcohol use disorders, the neurobiology of alcohol use disorder can now be directly measured in vivo. This article reviews the findings of structural and functional neuroimaging studies related to alcohol use disorder. Issues about intoxication, dependence, withdrawal, abstinence, organic change induced by chronic alcohol use, neurochemistry and craving are discussed and its clinical implications and future direction of neuroimaging studies are also suggested.
Functional Neuroimaging ; Neurobiology ; Neurochemistry ; Neuroimaging*

In this brief overview, the author addresses the elements of late-life depression from a biological standpoint. The etiology of late-life depression is undoubtedly multifactorial. Few studies of the neurochemistry and neuropathology of depression in the elderly have yielded robust results. Even fewer studies suggest the presence of a trait-dependent marker for the geriatric depression. A key difficulty is the current inability to determine whether alleged markers are crucial to the genesis of the disorder or whether they are merely epiphenomena.
Aged ; Biology ; Depression ; Humans ; Mood Disorders* ; Neurochemistry

In this brief overview, the author addresses the elements of late-life depression from a biological standpoint. The etiology of late-life depression is undoubtedly multifactorial. Few studies of the neurochemistry and neuropathology of depression in the elderly have yielded robust results. Even fewer studies suggest the presence of a trait-dependent marker for the geriatric depression. A key difficulty is the current inability to determine whether alleged markers are crucial to the genesis of the disorder or whether they are merely epiphenomena.
Aged ; Biology ; Depression ; Humans ; Mood Disorders* ; Neurochemistry

The author reviewed the relationship between psychotherapy and ego growth from psychoanalytic point of view. The effect of psychotherapy represents itself in ego growth. To illustrate this claim, the author reviewed Freud's concept on the effect of psychotherapy first and the concepts discussed in literatures after Freud. The main stance of this paper is that the effect of psychotherapy manifests itself in ego growth through therapeutic relationships. The author deduced that since the major part of the therapeutic process takes place unconsciously, one is unaware of his/her ego growth. Through psychotherapy, the immature part of the personality, which stoped growing in the course of development, starts to grow. It may be the ego growth either through gaining insight or the growth derived from the therapeutic relationship with the analyst. Mental illness can be looked upon as the loss of human nature, and the remedy lies in recovering the human nature. The lost human nature is recovered when one is in a therapeutic environment, that is very much maternal in nature. Psychotherapy may result in some changes in brain physiology or neurochemistry. It may take some time to bring about anatomical changes of the brain. If this assumption is correct that psychotherapy inflicts anatomical changes of the brain for it's positive effects, it should be accomplished through a long period of working-through of the problem. Some studies on this theme of neurophysiology and anatomical research are already in process and I hope to be able to explain the processes of psychotherapy in the near future.
Brain ; Ego ; Hope ; Human Characteristics ; Neurochemistry ; Neurophysiology ; Physiology ; Psychotherapy*

Mental functions, both normal and abnormal, are closely related to the brain function. On the other hand, it is also true that postnatal education and personal experiences could change the brain activities both chemically and physiologically and structurally. However, the relationships between the brain and mind are far from clear understanding, even though a variety of advanced knowledges and techniques, including brain imagings, neurochemistry and neuropsychopharmacology, and basic neurosciences, are at hands of scientists. In this special issue, the 5 psychiatrists took parts in elucidating the relationship between brain and mind from the point of cause of and therapeutic intervention for mental illnesses: 1) mental illness: disease of mind? 2) mental illness: disease of brain? 3) the role of biological interventions in mind 4) effect of psychological treatment: through brain change? and 5) effect of psychotherapy: through emotional growth?
Brain* ; Education ; Hand ; Humans ; Neurochemistry ; Neurosciences ; Psychiatry ; Psychotherapy

With a rapid development of neuroscience, the theories related to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia have been changed a lot from a simple hyperdopaminergic one to the various complicated ones. Among these, the theories regarding prefrontal cortex(PFC) pathology as a cause of schizophrenia are gaining more recognition as the results of neuroimaging and neuropsychological tests in schizophrenia consistently report abnormalities in PFC. Therefore, we first reviewed the unique characteristics of PFC in anatomy, neurochemistry and neurophysiology to enhance an understanding of those ones. Secondly, various neurotransmitter, neurodevelopmental and neural network theories of schizophrenia introduced recently were reviewed in terms of PFC pathology.
Dopamine ; Neurochemistry ; Neuroimaging ; Neurophysiology ; Neuropsychological Tests ; Neurosciences ; Neurotransmitter Agents ; Pathology ; Prefrontal Cortex* ; Schizophrenia*

To investigate the effects of neonatal stress on behavior and neurochemistry, rats were exposed to the footshock stress on postnatal day (PND) 14 or PNDs 14 and 21. Rats were exposed to uncontrollable electric shocks delivered to the floor with a constant current (0.8 mA) for 5 sec period. Daily sessions consisted of 60 trials on a random time schedule with an average of 55 sec. The first exposure to footshocks on PND 14 decreased body weight gain for 1 day. However, the second exposure to footshocks on PND 21 did not affect body weight gain. Exploratory activity was measured by exposing a rat to a novel environment 24 h after experience of footshocks. Similar to the body weight changes, a decreased activity was noted after the first exposure to footshocks, while no changed activity was noted after the second exposure to footshocks. However, the Bmax value of 5-HT2A/2C receptors in the cortex decreased by the second exposure to footshocks, but not by the first exposure to footshocks. Moreover, an autoradiographic study revealed that the density of (3H)dexamethasone binding in hippocampus decreased in rats exposed to footshocks 4 times during PND 14~20. These results suggest that the uncontrollable footshock stress changes 5-hydroxytryptamine and glucocorticoid receptor systems acutely and that the repeated exposure to the same stress may not elicit behavioral alterations by the compensatory activity of young brain although changes in some neurochemistry exist.
Animals ; Appointments and Schedules ; Behavior ; Body Weight ; Body Weight Changes ; Brain ; Exploratory Behavior* ; Hippocampus ; Neurochemistry ; Rats ; Receptors, Glucocorticoid ; Serotonin ; Shock

Spinal cord injury results in dramatic changes in the neurochemistry of peripheral and central micturition reflex pathways. We studied an animal model of spinal cord contusion injury using Sprague Dawley rats. Recoveries of motor and bladder functions were recorded, along with the changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in regions rostral and caudal to the injury site. Results are as follows: 1. Motor functions examined by the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale were fully recovered 28 d after spinal cord injury. 2. Bladder functions, monitored urodynamically, changed from flaccid paralysis at 4 d after spinal cord injury to spastic paralysis at 14, 18, and 28 d. 3. BDNF immunoreactive neurons and glial cells were found in both gray and white matters of the normal spinal cord, and the numbers decreased gradually after spinal cord injury 4. BDNF enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results were almost the same as for immunohistochemistry, but the intensity of decrease was more prominent in the caudal than in the rostral regions. Distinguishing between the beneficial or detrimental effects of neurotrophic factors in the context of micturition reflexes or regenerative responses will be a challenge, but is essential to understanding the effects of therapies directed at blocking the effects of neuroactive compounds or neurotrophic factors.
Animals ; Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor* ; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay ; Immunohistochemistry ; Models, Animal ; Muscle Spasticity ; Nerve Growth Factors ; Neurochemistry ; Neuroglia ; Neurons ; Paralysis ; Rats* ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Reflex ; Spinal Cord Injuries* ; Spinal Cord* ; Urinary Bladder ; Urination ; Urodynamics*