Hand Disinfection ; standards ; Hand Hygiene ; methods ; Humans ; Infection Control ; methods

Coronavirus Infections ; prevention & control ; Humans ; Masks ; Respiratory Protective Devices

INTRODUCTIONMultidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative healthcare-associated infections are prevalent in Singaporean hospitals. An accurate assessment of the socioeconomic impact of these infections is necessary in order to facilitate appropriate resource allocation, and to judge the costeffectiveness of targeted interventions.

MATERIALS AND METHODSA retrospective cohort study involving inpatients with healthcare-associated Gram-negative bacteraemia at 2 large Singaporean hospitals was conducted to determine the hospitalisation costs attributed to multidrug resistance, and to elucidate factors affecting the financial impact of these infections. Data were obtained from hospital administrative, clinical and financial records, and analysed using a multivariate linear regression model.

RESULTSThere were 525 survivors of healthcare-associated Gram-negative bacteraemia in the study cohort, with 224 MDR cases. MDR bacteraemia, concomitant skin and soft tissue infection, higher APACHE II score, ICU stay, and appropriate definitive antibiotic therapy were independently associated with higher total hospitalisation costs, whereas higher Charlson comorbidity index and concomitant urinary tract infection were associated with lower costs. The excess hospitalisation costs attributed to MDR infection was $8638.58. In the study cohort, on average, 62.3% of the excess cost attributed to MDR infection was paid for by government subvention.

CONCLUSIONMultidrug resistance in healthcare-associated Gram-negative bacteraemia is associated with higher financial costs--a significant proportion of which are subsidised by public funding in the form of governmental subvention. More active interventions aimed at controlling antimicrobial resistance are warranted, and the results of our study also provide possible benchmarks against which the cost-effectiveness of such interventions can be assessed.

Aged ; Anti-Bacterial Agents ; economics ; therapeutic use ; Bacteremia ; drug therapy ; economics ; Cohort Studies ; Cost of Illness ; Cross Infection ; drug therapy ; economics ; Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial ; Female ; Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections ; drug therapy ; economics ; Hospitalization ; economics ; Humans ; Intensive Care Units ; economics ; Linear Models ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Prevalence ; Retrospective Studies ; Severity of Illness Index ; Singapore

INTRODUCTION: Healthcare workers (HCWs) are a critical resource in the effort to control the COVID-19 pandemic. They are also a sentinel surveillance population whose clinical status reflects the effectiveness of the hospital's infection prevention measures in the pandemic. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study conducted in Singapore General Hospital (SGH), a 1,822-bed tertiary hospital. Participants were all HCWs working in SGH during the study period. HCW protection measures included clinical workflows and personal protective equipment developed and adapted to minimise the risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission. HCW monitoring comprised staff contact logs in high-risk locations, twice-daily temperature monitoring, assessment of HCWs with acute respiratory illnesses (ARIs) in the staff clinic and, in the event of an exposure, extensive contact tracing, detailed risk assessment and risk-based interventions. HCW surveillance utilised monitoring data and ARI presentations and outcomes. RESULTS: In the ten-week period between 6 January 2020 and 16 March 2020, 333 (17.1%) of 1,946 HCWs at risk of occupational COVID-19 presented with ARI. 32 (9.6%) screened negative for SARS-CoV-2 from throat swabs. Five other HCWs developed COVID-19 attributed to non-clinical exposures. From the nine COVID-19 exposure episodes investigated, 189 HCW contacts were identified, of whom 68 (36.2%) were placed on quarantine and remained well. CONCLUSION Early in an emerging infectious disease outbreak, close monitoring of frontline HCWs is essential in ascertaining the effectiveness of infection prevention measures. HCWs are at risk of community disease acquisition and should be monitored and managed to prevent onward transmission.
Humans ; COVID-19/epidemiology* ; Pandemics/prevention & control* ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Infectious Disease Transmission, Patient-to-Professional/prevention & control* ; Sentinel Surveillance ; Retrospective Studies ; Infection Control ; Health Personnel

INTRODUCTION: We investigated the knowledge, attitudes and practice (KAP) towards coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its related preventive measures in Singaporeans aged ≥60 years. METHODS: This was a population-based, cross-sectional, mixed-methods study (13 May 2020-9 June 2020) of participants aged ≥ 60 years. Self-reported KAP about ten symptoms and six government-endorsed preventive measures related to COVID-19 were evaluated. Multivariable regression models were used to identify sociodemographic and health-related factors associated with KAP in our sample. Associations between knowledge/attitude scores and practice categories were determined using logistic regression. Seventy-eight participants were interviewed qualitatively about the practice of additional preventive measures and data were analysed thematically. RESULTS: Mean awareness score of COVID-19 symptoms was 7.2/10. The most known symptom was fever (93.0%) and the least known was diarrhoea (33.5%). Most participants knew all six preventive measures (90.4%), perceived them as effective (78.7%) and practised 'wear a mask' (97.2%). Indians, Malays and participants living in smaller housing had poorer mean scores for knowledge of COVID-19 symptoms. Older participants had poorer attitudes towards preventive measures. Compared to Chinese, Indians had lower odds of practising three out of six recommendations. A one-point increase in score for knowledge and attitudes regarding preventive measures resulted in higher odds of always practising three of six and two of six measures, respectively. Qualitative interviews revealed use of other preventive measures, for example, maintaining a healthy lifestyle. CONCLUSIONS Elderly Singaporeans displayed high levels of KAP about COVID-19 and its related preventive measures, with a positive association between levels of knowledge/attitude and practice. However, important ethnic and socioeconomic disparities were evident, indicating that key vulnerabilities remain, which require immediate attention.
Humans ; Aged ; COVID-19/epidemiology* ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Singapore/epidemiology* ; Surveys and Questionnaires