Periodic limb movement during sleep (PLMS) is repetitive and stereotyped limb movements that occur during sleep. Though this phenomenon, commonly observed in polysomnography, has significant associations with various sleep and physical disorders, its etiology has not been clearly identified. In fact, PLMS, which is not entirely stereotyped, might include similar movements actually caused by different mechanisms. According to attempts to classify the phenotypes of PLMS, genuine PLMS is characterized by a periodicity of 10-90 seconds, predominantly appearing in the first half of sleep, and gradually decreasing over time.The MEIS1 and BTBD9 genes are associated with iron and dopamine metabolism, and these genetic variants are associated with an increase of PLMS. Brain iron deficiency could be the reason of dopamine and glutamate dysfunctions. Pre-synaptic hyperdopaminergic state leads to down-regulation of post-synaptic dopamine 2 receptor, which result in a nocturnal dopaminergic deficit. It could induce spinal hyperactivity via the A11 dopamine-inhibitory spinal descending pathway. Due to a hyperactivity of spinal cord, the central pattern generators in the spinal cord might be activated, possibly forming synchronous patterns of PLMS.The periodicity of PLMS could be regulated by the cyclic alternating pattern, one of the microstructures of sleep, which means the modulation of cortical-subcortical regions. To date, definitive research on the etiology and pathophysiology of PLMS is lacking. Future research will require a precise definition of PLMS, use of parameters with less inter-night variability with analyzing the microstructure of sleep.

Transcranial Doppler (TCD) was carried out to determine the resistive index (RI) values of normal canine cerebral arteries and its reproducibility and to evaluate the change of cerebral vascular resistance following diuretics administration. RI values of rostral cerebral artery (RCA) were compared between fontanelle window and temporal window. Normal ranges and reproducibility of the RI values were examined in the rostal cerebral artery (RCA) and caudal cerebral artery (CCA). And after administration of diuretics, TCD-derived RI values were measured at RCA and CCA. Cerebral vascular RI values of RCA and CCA were 0.55 +/- 0.05 and 0.55 +/- 0.03 in the normal dogs, respectively. There was no significant difference of RI between male and female; between fontanelle window and temporal window. Reproducibility of RI measurements between intraobserver and interobserver were relatively high. The RI of RCA and CCA were significantly increased 15 minutes after mannitol administration (p<0.01) and returned to baseline values by 30 minutes, but it did not significantly change after furosemide and saline administration. The results suggest that TCD is a useful test which can obtain reproducible results from any window and has the advantage of detecting subtle changes in cerebral vascular resistance.
Animals ; Cerebral Arteries/drug effects/*ultrasonography ; Diuretics/pharmacology ; Dogs/*physiology ; Feasibility Studies ; Furosemide/pharmacology ; Mannitol/pharmacology ; Reference Values ; Reproducibility of Results ; Ultrasonography, Doppler/*veterinary ; Vascular Resistance/drug effects/*physiology

The objectives of this study were to observe normal peristalsis and mixing (or segmental movements) and to evaluate an acupuncture stimulation (ST-36 and BL-27) on the intestinal (duodenum) motility in normal dogs using duplex Doppler sonography. Fifteen healthy Beagle dogs were used for this experiment after the administration of warm saline and pellet feeding. The duodenal motility was examined using duplex Doppler sonography. Six hours after the pellet feeding, an electroacupuncture stimulation at ST-36 and BL-27 was applied and the duodenal motility was examined using duplex Doppler sonography pre-stimulation, during the stimulation and post-stimulation. After saline and pellet administration, the duplex Doppler sonograms showed 3 types of peristalsis and a mixing type (or segmental movement) of duodenum motility. In the peristalsis types, most yielded high-amplitude signals which had one high peak (type-1), two high peaks (type-2), and three high peaks (type-3) and lasted more than 1.3 seconds. Mixing type of duodenum motility had weak signals and were lasted more than 1.5 seconds. Among the peristalsis types, the type 1 and type 2 were predominant and the type 3 was rarely observed. The frequency of intestinal motility stimulated by ST-36 acupoint was increased during the acupuncture stimulation (20% increase compared to the basal value) and decreased (7% decrease compared to the basal value) after stimulation. The frequency of intestinal motility stimulated by BL-27 acupoint was decreased during the acupuncture stimulation (31% decrease compared to the basal value) and increased (18% increase compared to the basal value) after stimulation. There was a significant increase(p<0.01) between the value found in during and the post-stimulation tests. We conclude that duplex Doppler studies permit a graphic visualization of intestinal movements which can be qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using this technique, it is possible to evaluate the gastrointestinal motility after an acupuncture stimulation.
Acupuncture Points ; Animals ; Dogs/*physiology ; Electroacupuncture/methods/*veterinary ; *Gastrointestinal Motility ; Intestine, Small/physiology/*ultrasonography ; Peristalsis ; Ultrasonography, Doppler, Duplex/methods/*veterinary

The height, width, and cross-sectional area of the vertebral canal and spinal cord along with the area ratio of spinal cord to vertebral canal in the cervical vertebra were evaluated in images obtained using computed tomography (CT). Measurements were taken at the cranial, middle, and caudal point of each cervical vertebra in eight clinically normal small breed dogs (two shih tzu, two miniature schnauzers, and four mixed breed), 10 beagles, and four German shepherds. CT myelography facilitated the delineation of the epidural space, subarachnoid space, and spinal cord except at the caudal portion of the 7th cervical vertebra. The spinal cord had a tendency to have a clear ventral border in the middle portion of the vertebral canal and lateral borders near both end plates. The height, width, and area of the vertebral canal and spinal cord in the cervical vertebra were increased as the size of dog increased. However, the ratio of the spinal cord area to vertebral canal area in the small dogs was higher than that of the larger dogs. Results of the present study could provide basic and quantitative information for CT evaluation of pathologic lesions in the cervical vertebra and spinal cord.
Animals ; Body Size ; Cervical Vertebrae/*anatomy & histology/radiography ; Dogs/*anatomy & histology/growth & development ; Reference Values ; Spinal Canal/*anatomy & histology/radiography ; Spinal Cord/*anatomy & histology/radiography ; Tomography, X-Ray Computed/*veterinary

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Epithelialization of the fistula in chronic cases of oroantral fistula hinders natural healing of its opening. This requires surgical repair in most cases. We aimed to evaluate the treatment results of 12 cases managed by different surgical methods. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Twelve patients with oroantral fistula were managed in our hospital between March 1991 and July 2000. The male to female ratio was 4:8 and their ages ranged from 27 to 63 years with the mean of 46 years. Medical records of oroantral fistula were reviewed for the evaluation of causes, treatment methods, and final outcomes. RESULTS: Eight fistulas developed after tooth extraction due to dental problem or sinusitis, and four fistulas originated from postoperative mucocele of the maxillary sinus. The first upper molar was most frequently involved, followed by the second premolar. One patient was cured by conservative management alone and eleven patients underwent Caldwell-Luc's operation, fistulectomy, and flap surgery. Two fistulas were repaired with the use of palatal mucosal rotation flap, and nine fistulas with the use of buccal mucosal advancement flaps resulting in successful outcomes. CONCLUSION: Tooth extraction and postoperative mucocele are the two common causes of oroantral fistula. Caldwell-Luc's operation with fistulectomy and flap surgery for repairing the opening of the fistula resulted in cure without recurrence.
Bicuspid ; Female ; Fistula ; Humans ; Male ; Maxillary Sinus ; Medical Records ; Molar ; Mucocele ; Oroantral Fistula* ; Recurrence ; Sinusitis ; Tooth Extraction ; Treatment Outcome*