PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to determine whether the progressive increase of metabolic syndrome (MetS) score, the number of components of MetS, is correlated significantly with increasing pulse pressure (PP). MATERIALS AND METHODS: 4,034 subjects were enrolled from the Cardiovascular Genome Center of Yonsei University (M:F=2344:1690, 55.2 +/- 10.5). Most of the study population were recruited from hypertension clinics, controlled with medications according to JNC7 guidelines. The Asian modified criteria of MetS were applied and MetS score was estimated. The HOMA index for insulin resistance, cholesterol profiles, and anthropometric measurements were assessed. RESULTS: Among 4034 participants, 1690 (41.9%) were classified as MetS. Progressive increase in PP was demonstrated for increasing components of the MetS score. Multiple linear regression analysis with PP as the dependent variable showed that age (beta=0.311, p < 0.001), MetS score (beta=0.226, p < 0.001), male gender (beta=-0.093, p < 0.001) and HOMA index IR (beta=0.033, p=0.03) are significantly associated with PP (R(2)=0.207, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The present results from this study demonstrate that increasing MetS score is an independent determinant of increasing PP. The results also demonstrate the independent role of MetS in increasing arterial stiffness and PP.
Adult ; Age Distribution ; Aged ; Blood Pressure ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*epidemiology/physiopathology ; Middle Aged

Recently, obesity (BMI > or =25 kg/m2) and type II diabetes mellitus have reached epidemic proportions in Korea, and rates of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are between 10% and 25% of the general population. NAFLD in Korea is as closely associated with several components of metabolic syndrome including, obesity, hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia as it is in Western countries. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia may play a role in the pathogenesis of fatty liver in patients with normal body weight as well as in patients with obesity. And, obesity induced accumulation of fat in the adipose tissue leads to an imbalance in the regulation of adipokines, such as downregulation of adiponectin and upregulation of retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) and ghrelin. High BMI, the AST/ALT ratio, and ALT levels could be used to distinguish NASH from simple steatosis in Korean patients. In large number of NAFLD patients who underwent a voluntary medical checkup, even a small weight reduction was associated with improvements in their hepatic steatosis grade on ultrasonography, serum aminotransferase levels, and related metabolic abnormalities. Subjects with fatty liver disease should be advised to lose weight through lifestyle modifications. Small animal and human studies of treatment with PPAR agonists and betaine have been reported in the Korean literature. It is now acknowledged that NAFLD is the most common liver disease in Korea, largely due to the considerable increase in metabolic abnormalities such as obesity and diabetes. Future studies should continue to focus both on the pathogenesis and the treatment of NAFLD in order to accumulate more of our own data.
*Fatty Liver/complications/physiopathology/therapy ; Humans ; Korea ; Metabolic Syndrome X/complications ; Risk Factors

Recently, obesity (BMI > or =25 kg/m2) and type II diabetes mellitus have reached epidemic proportions in Korea, and rates of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are between 10% and 25% of the general population. NAFLD in Korea is as closely associated with several components of metabolic syndrome including, obesity, hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia as it is in Western countries. Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia may play a role in the pathogenesis of fatty liver in patients with normal body weight as well as in patients with obesity. And, obesity induced accumulation of fat in the adipose tissue leads to an imbalance in the regulation of adipokines, such as downregulation of adiponectin and upregulation of retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) and ghrelin. High BMI, the AST/ALT ratio, and ALT levels could be used to distinguish NASH from simple steatosis in Korean patients. In large number of NAFLD patients who underwent a voluntary medical checkup, even a small weight reduction was associated with improvements in their hepatic steatosis grade on ultrasonography, serum aminotransferase levels, and related metabolic abnormalities. Subjects with fatty liver disease should be advised to lose weight through lifestyle modifications. Small animal and human studies of treatment with PPAR agonists and betaine have been reported in the Korean literature. It is now acknowledged that NAFLD is the most common liver disease in Korea, largely due to the considerable increase in metabolic abnormalities such as obesity and diabetes. Future studies should continue to focus both on the pathogenesis and the treatment of NAFLD in order to accumulate more of our own data.
*Fatty Liver/complications/physiopathology/therapy ; Humans ; Korea ; Metabolic Syndrome X/complications ; Risk Factors

A growing body of literature has documented that job stress is associated with the development of cardiovascular disease. Nevertheless, the pathophysiological mechanism of this association remains unclear. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the relationship between job stress, heart rate variability, and metabolic syndrome. The study design was cross-sectional, and a total of 169 industrial workers were recruited. A structured-questionnaire was used to assess the general characteristics and job characteristics (work demand, decision latitude). Heart rate variability (HRV) was recorded using SA-2000 (medi-core), and was assessed by time-domain and by frequency-domain analyses. Time domain analysis was performed using SDNN (Standard Deviation of normal to normal interval), and spectral analysis using low-frequency (LF), high-frequency (HF), and total frequency power. Metabolic syndrome was defined on the basis of risk factors being clustered when three or more of the following cardiovascular risk factors were included in the fifth quintile: glucose, systolic blood pressure, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (bottom quintile), triglyceride, and waist-hip ratio. The results showed that job characteristics were not associated with cardiovascular risk factors. Compared to the lower strain group (low strain+passive+active group), the high strain group had a less favorable cardiovascular risk profile with higher levels of blood pressure, glucose, homocysteine, and clotting factor, but the difference was not statistically significant. The SDNN of HRV was significantly lower in the high strain group than in the low strain group. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the lower strain group and high strain group was 13.2% and 23.8%, respectively. In the high strain group, the metabolic syndrome was significantly related to a decreased SDNN. However, we could not find a significant association in LF/HF ratio. This result suggests that decreased HRV found in the high-strain group are not a direct indicator of disease. However, it can induce cardiovascular abnormalities or dysfunctions related to the onset of heart disease among high risk groups.
Adult ; Aged ; *Heart Rate ; Humans ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*physiopathology ; Middle Aged ; Occupational Diseases/*physiopathology ; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ; Stress, Psychological/*physiopathology

Visceral fat has been reported to be associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and the metabolic syndrome (MetS). We assessed the prevalence of both NAFLD and the MetS, measured visceral fat thickness VFT), and estimated the physical activity indexes of 224 relatively healthy hospital workers. We also investigated the associations between both VFT and physical activity index and each of NAFLD and the MetS. The MetS was diagnosed according to the guidelines outlined by the Adult Treatment Panel III, and NAFLD was diagnosed by ultrasonography. Subjects with hepatitis B and C infections and those reporting moderate alcohol consumption were excluded from the study. The prevalence of the MetS was 11.6% and that of NAFLD was 41.5%. Many subjects with the MetS had NAFLD (73.1%), and some subjects with NAFLD (20.4%) also had several components of the MetS (p=0.001). VFT was significantly increased by both the addition of components of the MetS and the severity of NAFLD (p<0.001). In addition, VFT was independently associated with NAFLD (odds ratio [OR], 1.10; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.19) in subjects with more than 2 components of the MetS. In contrast, habitual physical activity was reversely associated with NAFLD (OR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.10-0.87). In conclusion, an increased visceral fat content and reduced physical activity could be not only biological markers but also therapeutic targets in the treatment of NAFLD and the MetS.
Adult ; Alcohol Drinking ; Blood Pressure ; Comorbidity ; Fatty Liver/*physiopathology ; Female ; Humans ; Hyperinsulinism/complications ; *Intra-Abdominal Fat ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*physiopathology ; Middle Aged ; Multivariate Analysis ; Odds Ratio

BACKGROUND: Pulse wave velocity (PWV) reflects arterial stiffness and may provide an integrated index of vascular status and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Although the individual components of the metabolic syndrome (MS) are well established cardiovascular risk factors, the impact of the MS and its components on PWV has not been well defined. METHODS: Using an automatic wave form analyzer, heart-femoral (hf) and brachial-ankle (ba) PWVs were measured simultaneously in 364 subjects (age, 44.8+/-9.3 years). None of the subjects had clinical atherosclerotic CVD, diabetes, or systemic disease. The association between PWVs and the features of the MS, individual and clustered, were analyzed. RESULTS: By univariate analysis, the individual components of the MS, except for a low HDL-cholesterol level, were associated with increased hfPWV and baPWV. Hypercholesterolemia was also associated with increase in both PWVs. A low HDL-cholesterol level was associated with an increased baPWV. However, by multivariate analysis, none of the components of the MS, except for an elevated blood pressure (BP), was an independent factor affecting hfPWV and baPWV. After controlling for age and gender, hfPWV and baPWV were increased according to the number of MS components present (p<0.001 for both). After controlling for age, gender and BP, the MS was associated with an increased baPWV (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The clustering of MS components may interact to synergistically affect arterial stiffness, even though the individual MS components, except for an elevated BP, do not affect arterial stiffness independently.
Pulsatile Flow/*physiology ; Middle Aged ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*physiopathology ; Male ; Humans ; Female ; Blood Pressure ; Blood Flow Velocity ; Arteries/*physiopathology ; Aged ; Age Factors ; Adult

PURPOSE: Visceral fat (VF) is closely associated with many metabolic risk factors and is also known to be a strong predictive factor for severe metabolic complications in adults. But there are only a few studies concerning the association of VF and risk factors for metabolic syndrome (MS) in children and adolescents. In our study, we emphasized the association of VF [measured by VF computed tomography (VFCT)] and risk factors for metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The subjects were outpatients aged 6 to 18 years who underwent VFCT in the family medicine of The Catholic University of Korea from January 2005 to August 2009. There were 82 patients in total (42 children, 40 adolescents). Height, weight, blood pressure (BP), blood tests, body composition analysis and VF were measured. The three groups were also classified by metabolic score. RESULTS: In children, only high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) showed a statistically significant difference, while in adolescents, triglyceride, HDL-C, BP, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC) and VFA showed statistically significant differences. In terms of VFA, fasting glucose, BP, BMI, basal metabolic rate (BMR) and WC showed statistically significant differences. BMI showed a statistically significant difference in terms of BP, BMR, WC, VFA and HDL-C. CONCLUSION: There is a need to acknowledge the statistically significant associations of VF and risk factors for MS in children and adolescents. Screening tests for BP, cholesterol, fasting glucose and WC should be given in clinics for children and adolescents so that MS can be detected and its risk factors treated early.
Adolescent ; Body Mass Index ; Child ; Female ; Humans ; Intra-Abdominal Fat/*physiology ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*epidemiology/metabolism/physiopathology ; Risk Factors ; Waist Circumference/physiology

Elevated blood pressure (BP) is the most common cause of cardiovascular disease. Salt intake has a strong influence on BP, and plasma sodium (pNa) is increased with progressive increases in salt intake. However, the associations with pNa and BP had been reported inconsistently. We evaluated the association between pNa and BP, and estimated the risks of all-cause-mortality according to pNa levels. On the basis of data collected from health checkups during 1995-2009, 97,009 adult subjects were included. Positive correlations between pNa and systolic BP, diastolic BP, and pulse pressure (PP) were noted in participants with pNa > or =138 mM/L (P<0.001). In participants aged > or =50 yr, SBP, DBP, and PP were positively associated with pNa. In participants with metabolic syndrome components, the differences in SBP and DBP according to pNa were greater (P<0.001). A cumulative incidence of mortality was increased with increasing pNa in women aged > or =50 yr during the median 4.2-yr-follow-up (P<0.001). In women, unadjusted risks for mortality were increased according to sodium levels. After adjustment, pNa > or =145 mM/L was related to mortality. The positive correlation between pNa and BP is stronger in older subjects, women, and subjects with metabolic syndrome components. The incidence and adjusted risks of mortality increase with increasing pNa in women aged > or =50 yr.
Adult ; Blood Pressure/*physiology ; Cardiovascular Diseases/blood/*mortality ; Female ; Humans ; Hypertension/*physiopathology ; Incidence ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/blood ; Middle Aged ; Risk ; Risk Factors ; Sex Factors ; Sodium/*blood

Although metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality and the development of atherosclerosis, consensus is still lacking on the status of cardiovascular function and geometry in MetS patients. We investigated the relation between MetS and left ventricle (LV) geometry and function, carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and arterial stiffness in a community-based cohort of 702 adult subjects. Subjects were categorized into three groups according to the number of MetS components present, as defined by the Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines: 1) Absent (0 criteria), 2) Pre-MetS (1-2 criteria) or 3) MetS (> or =3 criteria). In female subjects, LV mass, LV mass/height(2.7), deceleration time, and aortic pulse wave velocity increased, and E/A ration decreased in a stepwise manner across the three groups. These changes were not observed in male subjects. The mean carotid IMT was higher in the MetS group than in the other two groups. The degree of MetS clustering is found to be strongly correlated with geometric eccentricity of LV hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction and arterial changes irrespective of age and blood pressure status, particularly in females. Waist circumference is found to have the most powerful effect on cardiovascular parameters.
Adult ; Aged ; Cardiovascular Diseases/etiology/*physiopathology ; Cardiovascular System/pathology/*physiopathology ; Carotid Arteries/anatomy & histology/physiology ; *Cohort Studies ; Female ; Heart Ventricles/anatomy & histology ; Humans ; Korea ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/complications/*physiopathology ; Middle Aged ; *Rural Population ; Ventricular Function, Left/physiology

PURPOSE: Reduced heart rate variability significantly increases cardiovascular mortality. Metabolic syndrome increases the cardiac autonomic dysfunction. Recently, increasing cardiovascular mortality has been reported in patients with schizophrenia. This study was done to compare heart rate variability between adults with and without schizophrenia and to compare the relationship of heart rate variability to metabolic syndrome in hospitalized patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: This was a descriptive and correlational study in which 719 adults without schizophrenia and 308 adults with schizophrenia took part between May and June 2008. We measured the following: five-minute heart rate variability; high-frequency, low-frequency, the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency, and the Standard Deviation of all the normal RR intervals. Data was also collected on metabolic syndrome, abdominal obesity, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, blood pressure and fasting glucose. RESULTS: The Standard Deviation of all the normal RR intervals values of heart rate variability indices were 1.53+/-0.18. The low-frequency and high-frequency values of heart rate variability indices were significantly higher in hospitalized patients with schizophrenia (3.89+/-1.36; 3.80+/-1.20) than those in the healthy participants (2.20+/-0.46; 2.10+/-0.46). There were no significant differences between the schizophrenic patients with and without metabolic syndrome. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that schizophrenia patients have significantly lower cardiac autonomic control, but they have significantly higher low-frequency and high-frequency values than those of healthy adults. Use of antipsychotic drug may affect the autonomic nervous system in schizophrenic patients. Metabolic syndrome was not associated with cardiac autonomic control in schizophrenia patients.
Adult ; Autonomic Nervous System/physiopathology ; Blood Glucose/analysis ; Blood Pressure ; Cardiovascular Diseases/complications/diagnosis/mortality ; Cholesterol, HDL/blood ; Female ; *Heart Rate ; Hospitalization ; Humans ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*complications/*physiopathology ; Middle Aged ; Obesity/etiology ; Schizophrenia/*complications/mortality/*physiopathology ; Triglycerides/blood