No abstract available.
Antioxidants/*metabolism ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*blood

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that contain molecules that regulate the metabolic functions of adjacent or remote cells. Recent in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies support the hypothesis that exosomes released from various cell types play roles in the progression of metabolic disorders including type 2 diabetes. Based on this concept and advances in other diseases, the proteins, mRNA, microRNA and lipids in exosomes isolated from biological fluids have been proposed as biomarkers in metabolic disorders. However, several problems with the development of clinically applicable biomarkers have not been resolved. In this review, the biologic functions of exosomes are briefly introduced, and we discuss the technical and practical pros and cons of different methods of exosome isolation for the identification of exosomal biomarkers of metabolic disorders. Standardization of preanalytical variables and isolation of high-purity exosomes from fully characterized biological fluids will be necessary for the identification of useful exosomal biomarkers that can provide insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of complications of metabolic syndrome and of whole-body metabolism.
Biomarkers* ; Diabetes Mellitus ; Exosomes* ; Extracellular Vesicles ; In Vitro Techniques ; Metabolic Diseases* ; Metabolic Syndrome X ; Metabolism ; MicroRNAs ; RNA, Messenger

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that contain molecules that regulate the metabolic functions of adjacent or remote cells. Recent in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies support the hypothesis that exosomes released from various cell types play roles in the progression of metabolic disorders including type 2 diabetes. Based on this concept and advances in other diseases, the proteins, mRNA, microRNA and lipids in exosomes isolated from biological fluids have been proposed as biomarkers in metabolic disorders. However, several problems with the development of clinically applicable biomarkers have not been resolved. In this review, the biologic functions of exosomes are briefly introduced, and we discuss the technical and practical pros and cons of different methods of exosome isolation for the identification of exosomal biomarkers of metabolic disorders. Standardization of preanalytical variables and isolation of high-purity exosomes from fully characterized biological fluids will be necessary for the identification of useful exosomal biomarkers that can provide insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of complications of metabolic syndrome and of whole-body metabolism.
Biomarkers* ; Diabetes Mellitus ; Exosomes* ; Extracellular Vesicles ; In Vitro Techniques ; Metabolic Diseases* ; Metabolic Syndrome X ; Metabolism ; MicroRNAs ; RNA, Messenger

Obesity is a leading risk factor for insulin resistance, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and cardiovascular complications, collectively referred to as metabolic diseases. Given the prevalence of obesity and its associated medical problems, new strategies are required to prevent or treat obesity and obesity-related metabolic effects. Here we summarize contributors of obesity, and molecular mechanisms controlling adipogenesis from studies in mammalian systems. We also discuss the possibilities of using Drosophila as a genetic model system to advance our understanding of players in fat biology.
Animals ; Drosophila/*physiology ; Humans ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*etiology/metabolism/prevention & control ; Obesity/*complications/metabolism/prevention & control ; PPAR gamma/metabolism/physiology

A main symptom of equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) in ponies is pathological obesity characterized by abnormal accumulation of fat deposits and inflammation. In this study, we analyzed the expression of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), in subcutaneous adipose tissue and the correlation with serum concentrations in peripheral blood of Welsh ponies. Based on clinical examination findings, the animals were divided into two groups: ponies affected with EMS (n = 8) and obese ponies (n = 8). The adipose tissue was examined using immunohistochemical analysis while concentrations IL-6 and TNF-alpha were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Additionally, histological characterization of the adipose tissue was performed. The results obtained showed that IL-6 expression in adipose tissue biopsies derived from animals with EMS was enhanced while TNF-alpha levels of both groups were comparable. Compared to the obese ponies, EMS animals also had significantly elevated levels of serum IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Histological analysis revealed macrophage infiltration and fibrosis in adipose tissue preparations from the EMS group. These data suggest that IL-6 may play a key role in the course of EMS in Welsh ponies. Our findings also demonstrated that analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokines levels in serum may serve as an additional tool for diagnosing EMS.
Adipose Tissue/*metabolism ; Animals ; Female ; Horse Diseases/blood/*metabolism ; Horses ; Interleukin-6/blood/genetics/*metabolism ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/metabolism/*veterinary ; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/blood/genetics/*metabolism

Metabolic syndrome (MS) in women, which is characterized with central obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia, is associated with high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes. Menopause may be related with the prevalence of MS and increased CVD risk through effects on central obesity, lipid metabolism, and prothrombotic state. The emergence of these risk factors may be a direct result from the failure of estrogen production. Alternatively, metabolic changes with estrogen deficiency may be the indirect cause of those risks. Additionally, most women may have a few chances of developing MS during their life, such as pregnancy-related weight gain, hormonal contraceptive use and polycystic ovary syndrome. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that menopause itself can be the cause of MS. Representative managements of MS are life style modification and use of lipid lowering medication. This article will review the relationship between the development of MS and menopause. A better understanding on the metabolic changes with menopause will help identify women with risk factors of CVD and provide appropriate interventions
Cardiovascular Diseases ; Dyslipidemias ; Estrogens ; Female ; Humans ; Insulin Resistance ; Life Style ; Lipid Metabolism ; Menopause ; Metabolic Syndrome X ; Obesity, Abdominal ; Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ; Prevalence ; Risk Factors ; Weight Gain

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease worldwide, and is commonly associated with obesity. The spectrum of NAFLD ranges from simple steatosis to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis. Fructose ingestion, visceral obesity, and metabolic syndrome are risk factors for liver fibrosis. NAFLD is characterized by two steps of liver injury: intrahepatic lipid accumulation in the setting of insulin resistance, and inflammatory progression to NASH by oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. Noninvasive methods (e.g., abdominal ultrasonography) are safe ways to support a diagnosis of hepatic steatosis, but liver biopsy remains the gold standard for accurate diagnosis and staging of NASH. Pediatric NASH often displays a histologic pattern distinct from that found in adults. Lifestyle modification through diet and exercise should be attempted in patients diagnosed with NAFLD.
Diet ; Fatty Liver/*diagnosis/therapy/ultrasonography ; Humans ; Inflammation Mediators/metabolism ; Insulin Resistance ; Lipase/genetics ; Membrane Proteins/genetics ; Metabolic Syndrome X/complications ; Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism ; Risk Factors

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors that includes obesity, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. Accumulating evidence implies that MetS contributes to the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the factors connecting this association have not been determined. Insulin resistance (IR) is at the core of MetS and likely represent the key link between MetS and AD. In the central nervous system, insulin plays key roles in learning and memory, and AD patients exhibit impaired insulin signaling that is similar to that observed in MetS. As we face an alarming increase in obesity and T2D in all age groups, understanding the relationship between MetS and AD is vital for the identification of potential therapeutic targets. Recently, several diabetes therapies that enhance insulin signaling are being tested for a potential therapeutic benefit in AD and dementia. In this review, we will discuss MetS as a risk factor for AD, focusing on IR and the recent progress and future directions of insulin-based therapies.
Alzheimer Disease/etiology/metabolism ; Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism ; Animals ; Brain/metabolism ; Cognition Disorders/*etiology/*metabolism ; Humans ; Insulin/metabolism ; *Insulin Resistance ; Metabolic Syndrome X/complications/drug therapy/*metabolism ; Molecular Targeted Therapy ; Signal Transduction/drug effects ; tau Proteins/metabolism

PURPOSE: Visceral fat (VF) is closely associated with many metabolic risk factors and is also known to be a strong predictive factor for severe metabolic complications in adults. But there are only a few studies concerning the association of VF and risk factors for metabolic syndrome (MS) in children and adolescents. In our study, we emphasized the association of VF [measured by VF computed tomography (VFCT)] and risk factors for metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The subjects were outpatients aged 6 to 18 years who underwent VFCT in the family medicine of The Catholic University of Korea from January 2005 to August 2009. There were 82 patients in total (42 children, 40 adolescents). Height, weight, blood pressure (BP), blood tests, body composition analysis and VF were measured. The three groups were also classified by metabolic score. RESULTS: In children, only high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) showed a statistically significant difference, while in adolescents, triglyceride, HDL-C, BP, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC) and VFA showed statistically significant differences. In terms of VFA, fasting glucose, BP, BMI, basal metabolic rate (BMR) and WC showed statistically significant differences. BMI showed a statistically significant difference in terms of BP, BMR, WC, VFA and HDL-C. CONCLUSION: There is a need to acknowledge the statistically significant associations of VF and risk factors for MS in children and adolescents. Screening tests for BP, cholesterol, fasting glucose and WC should be given in clinics for children and adolescents so that MS can be detected and its risk factors treated early.
Adolescent ; Body Mass Index ; Child ; Female ; Humans ; Intra-Abdominal Fat/*physiology ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/*epidemiology/metabolism/physiopathology ; Risk Factors ; Waist Circumference/physiology

OBJECTIVES: This study was performed to assess the association between physical activity and the clustering of metabolic abnormalities among Korean children. The effect of substituting moderate to vigorous physical activity for the time spent in inactivity was examined as well. METHODS: The study subjects were comprised of 692 (354 boys, 338 girls) 4th grade elementary school students. We used a modified form of the physical activity questionnaire that was developed in the Five-City Project. The subjects with clustering of metabolic abnormalities were defined as having two or more of the following five characteristics: waist circumference > or =90 %, systolic or diastolic blood pressure > or =90 %, fasting glucose > or =110 mg/dl, triglycerides > or =110 mg/dl and HDL cholesterol < or =40 mg/dl. We calculated the odds ratios to assess the effect of substituting moderate to vigorous physical activity for time spent in inactivity. RESULTS: The risk of clustered metabolic abnormalities was inversely correlated with the increased time spent on moderate to vigorous physical activity, but the correlation was not significant. The odds ratio for clustering of metabolic abnormalities that represented the effect of substituting moderate to vigorous physical activity for 30minutes of sedentary activity was 0.87 (95% CI=0.76-1.01). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that substituting moderate to vigorous physical activity for sedentary activity could decrease the risk of clustered metabolic abnormalities.
Blood Glucose/metabolism ; Blood Pressure ; Child ; Cholesterol, HDL ; *Exercise ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Metabolic Syndrome X/diagnosis/*epidemiology ; Questionnaires ; Risk Factors ; Triglycerides/blood ; Urban Population ; Waist Circumference