This paper reviewed models to explain memory and neuropsychological tests to assess memory. Memory was explained in cognitive and neuroanatomical perspectives, Cognitive model describes memory as structure and process. In structure model, memory is divided into three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory(working memory), and long-term memory. In process model, there are broadly three categories of memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Memory process work in memory structure. There are two prominent models of the neuroanatomy of memory, derived from the work of Mishkin and Appenzeller and that of Squire and Zola-Morgan. These two models art the most useful for the clinician in part because they take into account the connections between the limbic and frontal cortical regions, The major difference between the two models concerns the role of the amygdala in memory processess. Mishkin and his colleagues believe that the amygdala plays a significant role while Squire and his colleagues do not, The most popular and widely used tests of memory ability such as WMS-R, AVLT, CVLT, RBMT, CFT, and BVRT-R, were reviewed.
Amygdala ; Memory* ; Memory, Long-Term ; Memory, Short-Term ; Neuroanatomy ; Neuropsychological Tests ; Neuropsychology*

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cognitive differentation training of Integrated Psychological Therapy(a training program of executive function,concept formation,language,and abstraction) on micro-level cognitive function such as attention,memory and reaction time in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS: Twenty-four inpatients diagnosed as schizophrenia using DSM-lV were randomly assigned to 2 group. The training group went through a total of 12 sessions of cognitive differentiation training for 4 weeks. The control group received psychoeducation Timer of Vienna Test System were administered to all patients, both before and after the training program. RESULTS: 1) In the attention and concentration scores of Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, between group, within group and interaction effects of training were not significant. 2) In the short-term memory scores of Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, within group effect of training was significant(F(1,24)=15.09,p<0.05), but the between group and interaction effects did not reach significance. 3) In the long-term memory scores of Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, within group effect of training was significant(F(1,24)=15.09,p<0.05), but the between group and interaction effects did not reach significance. 4) In the reaction time scores of Decision-Reaction Timer,interaction effect of training was significant(F(1,24)=5.18,p<0.05). 5) In the motor time scores of Decision-Reaction Timer,between group,within group and interaction effects of training were not significant. 6) In the decision time scores of Decision-Reaction Timer,interaction effect of training was significant(F(1,24)=6.00,p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that cognitive differentiation training of Integrated Psychological Therapy is partly effective on improving micro-level cognitive functions such as reaction time(especially,decision time)in patients with schizophrenia.
Education ; Humans ; Inpatients ; Memory ; Memory, Long-Term ; Memory, Short-Term ; Reaction Time ; Schizophrenia

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to investigate the characteristics of memory disturbance caused by traumatic brain injury. METHODS: We measured the memory functions of 90 patients who complained of memory impairment after traumatic brain injury and were referred for mental disability evaluation, using Rey-Kim Memory Test. The patients were divided into three groups according to Memory Quotient and brain imaging studies. We also examined their intelligence and emotional characteristics using K-WAIS and MMPI. RESULTS: 1) Among the patients who complained of memory impairment and had abnormal brain imaging after traumatic brain injury, more than half showed no actual memory disturbance. 2) The group with actual memory disturbance showed normal verbal short-term memory but showed deficits in verbal long-term memory. And their visuospatial functions were preserved but visual short- and long-term memory were impaired. 3) There was notable correlation between memory function and intelligence in patients with traumatic brain injury. 4) The group with abnormal brain imaging showed more social withdrawal than the group without abnormal brain imaging. The group without abnormal brain imaging showed more somatization than the group with abnormal brain imaging. CONCLUSION: We suggest the special memory function test as well as brain imaging studies for patients who complain of memory impairment after traumatic brain injury.
Brain Injuries* ; Disability Evaluation ; Humans ; Intelligence ; Memory* ; Memory, Long-Term ; Memory, Short-Term ; MMPI ; Neuroimaging

OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this study were to compare the working memory span between mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the Korean elderly population and to evaluate the effectiveness of the working memory span tests. METHODS: 32 normal controls (NC), 26 patients with MCI and 28 AD patients at a mild stage were participated in this study. We used newly devised working memory span tests (Word span test and Dot matrix) according to the components of working memory ;central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. And the results were compared with the Korean version of the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Packet (CERAD-K). To evaluate the effectiveness of the working memory tests and CERAD-K to screen MCI and AD, receiver operating characteristic curves were plotted. RESULTS: All subsets of the two working memory span tests showed significant decline in verbal and visuospatial working memory in AD. But there was no significant difference between NC and MCI. Compared to CERAD-K, the two working memory tests showed good effectiveness to discriminate AD. CONCLUSION: This study showed that working memory span tests could be effective diagnosing tools for detecting AD. But for the MCI, the working memory impairment was not prominent than episodic memory impairment. This is supposed to result from the various kinds of working memory components, especially the episodic buffer.
Aged ; Alzheimer Disease* ; Humans ; Memory, Episodic ; Memory, Short-Term* ; Mild Cognitive Impairment* ; ROC Curve

OBJECTIVETo explore the abilities of verbal and visual-spatial memory in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia.

METHODSThirty-two children with developmental dyslexia (aged 8-12 years) and thirty-nine age- and gender-matched normal children were involved in the study. Their verbal short-term and verbal working memories were measured using the digit ordering and the digit span tests, respectively. Their visual-spatial short-term and visual-spatial working memories were examined using the forward and backward block-tapping tests, respectively.

RESULTSThe DD children scored lower in the digit ordering and the digit span tests than the control children (P<0.05). The scores for the forward and backward block-tapping tests did not vary between the two groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONSThe children with DD have the deficits in both verbal short-term memory and verbal working memory.

Long-term exposure to high altitude affects spatial working memory. Previous studies have focused on the analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG) components in time domain rather than in frequency domain. To explore the influence of long-term high altitude exposure on time dynamic characteristics and neural oscillation process of the spatial working memory, n-back task combined with the technology of event related potential recording was performed on 20 young migrants who grew at low altitude before the age of 18 and moved to high altitude more than three years ago, and 21 young people who had never been to the high altitude. EEG data were recorded, and the time domain and frequency domain analyses were performed. The results showed that the response time was longer and the accuracy rate was lower under the 2-back condition in the high altitude group compared with those in low altitude group. The late positive potential (LPP) amplitude was more negative, P2 amplitude was more positive in the 2-back condition, and the power value of early delta frequency band (1-4 Hz, 160-300 ms) was larger, while the power values of late delta frequency band (1-4 Hz, 450-650 ms) and theta frequency band (4-8 Hz, 450-650 ms) were smaller in the high altitude group compared with those in low altitude group. The results suggested that long-term exposure to high altitude affected the spatial working memory ability of the migrants, which was reflected in the lack of attention resources in the later matching stage, decreased response inhibition ability and information maintenance ability, and thus resulted in impaired spatial working memory.
Altitude ; Brain ; physiopathology ; Electroencephalography ; Humans ; Memory, Short-Term ; Reaction Time ; Spatial Memory ; Transients and Migrants

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify the core symptoms of delirium, particularly in elderly people associated with major risk factors, using the Korean version of the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 200 patients (mean age: 72.7±3.9 years, male: 68.5%) who had been diagnosed with delirium. Exploratory factor analysis was used to investigate the factor structure, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the goodness of fit of the results. RESULTS: The results demonstrated three core domains of delirium in the elderly patients: 1) the cognitive domain (e.g., language, thought process, orientation, attention, long-term memory, and visuospatial ability); 2) the circadian domain (e.g., sleep-wake cycle and motor behavior); and 3) the short-term memory domain (short-term memory). These results were confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study suggest a theoretical domain structure for delirium in elderly patients.
Aged* ; Delirium* ; Factor Analysis, Statistical* ; Humans ; Male ; Memory, Long-Term ; Memory, Short-Term ; Risk Factors

Visual memory, mainly composed of visual long-term memory (VLTM) and visual working memory (VWM), is an important mechanism of human information storage. Since Baddeley proposed the multicomponent working memory model, the idea that VWM is independent of the VLTM system has been widely accepted. However, the new theoretical evidence suggested a close connection between VLTM and VWM. For instance, the three embedded components model describes the VLTM and VWM in the same framework, which suggests that VWM is only a distinct state of VLTM. On the one hand, the operating function of VWM is supported by the persistence of VLTM. On the other hand, the evidence from neuroimaging studies shows that VWM and VLTM tasks activate some same brain areas. In addition, the whole visual memory system shows a trend of processing from early visual cortex to prefrontal cortex. The present article not only reviews the current studies about the relationship between VLTM and VWM but also gives some forecasts for future studies.
Brain ; physiology ; Humans ; Memory, Long-Term ; Memory, Short-Term ; Visual Cortex ; physiology ; Visual Perception

A study on the elderly’s memory was carried out by test BEC 96 has shown that the long-term and short - term memory’s capacity were both reduced as increased age. There is obvious different of memory’s function in elderly should be seperately considered. The education level influenced significantly on the results of tests. The tests by using the picture were less depend on the education level so they were more suitble to evaluate the subjects with low education level
Memory ; Memory, Short-Term ; aged

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate relationship among cognitive factors (working memory and processing speed) and fluid reasoning (Gf) in psychiatric patients using a standardized clinical tool. METHODS: We included the responses of 115 heterogeneous patients who were diagnosed with the MINI-Plus 5.0 and WAIS-IV/WMS-IV was administered. For our analysis, structured equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to evaluate which cognitive variables are closely related to the Gf. RESULTS: The results showed that the visual working memory was the strongest predictor of the Gf compared to other cognitive factors. CONCLUSION: Processing speed was capable of predicting the Gf, when visual working memory was controlled. The inter-relationship among the Gf and other cognitive factors and its clinical implications were further discussed.
Humans ; Memory ; Memory, Short-Term*