Urinary tract infections frequently affect pregnant mothers. This problem causes significant morbidity and healthcare expenditure. Three common clinical manifestations of UTIs in pregnancy are: asymptomatic bacteriuria, acute cystitis and acute pyelonephritis. Escherichia coli remains the most frequent organism isolated in UTIs. All pregnant mothers should be screened for UTIs in pregnancy and antibiotics should be commenced without delay. Urine culture and sensitivity is the gold standard in diagnosing UTIs. Without treatment, asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy is associated with preterm delivery, intrauterine growth retardation, low birth weight, maternal hypertension, pre-eclampsia and anaemia. Acute pyelonephritis can lead to maternal sepsis. Recurrent UTIs in pregnancy require prophylactic antibiotic treatment.
Pregnancy ; Urinary tract infection ; Asymptomatic bacteriuria ; Acute ; therapeutic aspects

ABSTRACT • Abnormal liver function test with raised alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and raised aspartate aminotransferase (AST) are commonly seen in primary care setting. • Chronic alcohol consumption, drugs, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and chronic viral hepatitis are common causes associated with raised ALT and AST. • In chronic viral hepatitis, the elevation of liver enzyme may not correlate well with the degree of liver damage. • Non-hepatic causes of raised ALT and AST include polymyositis, acute muscles injury, acute myocardial infarction and hypothyroidism. • In the primary care setting, the doctor should obtain a complete history regarding the risk factors for viral hepatitis, substance abuse and request investigations accordingly. • Suspected chronic viral hepatitis and liver cirrhosis are best referred to hepatologist for further management.