Sarcocystosis is a zoonotic disease caused by a coccidian intracellular protozoan parasite of the genus Sarcocystis. More than 200 Sarcocystis species have been recorded and the parasites are found in mammals, birds and reptiles. They require two hosts to complete their life cycle. In Malaysia, sarcocystosis was reported as a potential emerging food and water-borne disease after a series of large outbreak of human infections. There was not enough attention given before even though it was reported in both humans and animals. The first human case of invasive muscular sarcocystosis among local Malaysian was reported in 1975. Besides, a retrospective autopsy examination on 100 tongues revealed 21% positive cases. On top of that, a sero-epidemiological survey conducted in 243 subjects in West Malaysia showed that 19.7% had Sarcocystis antibodies. The clinical symptoms of muscular sarcocystosis were first described comprehensively in 1999. Meanwhile, many types of animals including livestock were found harbor the sarcocysts in their tissue. The first case of human intestinal sarcocystosis was reported in 2014. This review indicates that human sarcocystosis is currently endemic in Malaysia and parallel to that reported in animals. However, more studies and investigations need to be conducted since the source of human infection remains unknown.

This review focuses on studies concerning cryptosporidiosis in three Asian countries. Cryptosporidium spp. infection was investigated in children<12 years old afflicted with diarrhoea and admitted to the paediatric hospitals in Iraq, Jordan and Malaysia. Most of the patients complained of abdominal pain, watery diarrhoea and mild-to-severe dehydration. Stool samples were collected from children and five methods were used to detect oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. including:direct wet mount, Sheather’s sugar flotation, formalin-ether sedimentation, modified Ziehl-Neelsen and direct fluorescent antibody (DFA). The infection rate was 8.56, 37.3 and 4.6 in Iraq, Jordan and Malaysia respectively. A combination of formalin ether sedimentation and acid fast stain was used to detect Cryptosporidium oocysts in Iraq. The DFA test showed the highest sensitivity for samples of children in Jordan. In Malaysia, direct wet mount, formalin-ether sedimentation, modified Ziehl-Neelsen and DFA gave the same results (4.62%) while Sheather’s sugar flotation was 3.85%. Source of drinking water appeared to be an important risk factor in transmission of infection. In Jordan, the high rate of infection was recorded in rainy season (January–May).

The protozoa under the genus Cryptosporidium is a zoonotic apicomplexan obligate intracellular parasite. Cryptosporidiosis, the term used to designate infection caused by Cryptosporidium sp., is considered as one of the most common food and waterborne diseases with worldwide spread, acting as a common cause of diarrhoea in animals and man. In immunocompetent individuals, Cryptosporidium typically induces self-limiting diarrhoea, which may resolve on its own after 2-3 d. However, cryptosporidiosis may turn life-threatening and subsequently lead to death in small children, the elderly and immunocompromised person, especially in AIDS patient. The diagnosis for Cryptosporidium infection is usually carried out through examination of stool for the presence of oocysts which measured 4-6 μm with spherical appearance. Morphometric identification is often difficult because of the diminutive size and obscure internal structure of the protozoa. Often, the identification of Cryptosporidium is realised through the combination of methods incorporating data from morphometrics, molecular techniques, and host specificity. However, limitations to some of these techniques still exist whether because of cost, duration, expertise, or reliability. Drugs combination is implemented in treatment of cryptosporidiosis. The efficiency of paromomycin, an aminocyclitol antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces, can be effective when combined use with protease inhibitors or recombinant IL-12. Since there is no drug that achieves the complete removal of Cryptosporidium from the host, supportive therapy was preferred in both human and domestic animals.

Flourescent antibody test (FAT) was applied to determine the cross-reactivities of monoclonal (mAb), polyclonal (pAb) antibodies to Neospora, Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium and antisera from cattle naturally infected with Neospora canium against antigens from a number of sources. Both mAb and pAb to Neospora reacted strongly (FAT titre up to 2560) with the homologous antigens and demonstrated weak titre (80) or no reaction with both Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium antigens. Also mAb and pAb to Toxoplasma gondii reacted at titres of 80 - 640 with homologous antigens and at titres of 10-40 with N. caninum. No cross-reactions with either mAb or pAb antibodies to N. caninum and T. gondii were observed with Cryptosporidium parvum. The same results were observed with C. parvum mAb when tested with both N. caninum and T. gondii antigens. Sera from cattle naturally infected with N. caninum had titres ranging from 80- 640 with N. caninum antigens, and 10- 40 with T. gondii and C. parvum antigens. At low dilutions, the complete surfaces of Neospora and Toxoplasma parasites were fluorescent, while in higher dilutions only dotted fluorescence appeared on the apical complex. These results indicated the presence of cross-reactivity between Neospora and Toxoplasma but not with Cryptosporidium. Accordingly the recommended cut-off antibody titre for diagnosis of neosporosis is 80.
Antibodies ; Neospora ; Antigens ; Toxoplasma ; Upper Case En

This review focuses on studies concerning cryptosporidiosis in three Asian countries. Cryptosporidium spp. infection was investigated in children < 12 years old afflicted with diarrhoea and admitted to the paediatric hospitals in Iraq, Jordan and Malaysia. Most of the patients complained of abdominal pain, watery diarrhoea and mild-to-severe dehydration. Stool samples were collected from children and five methods were used to detect oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. including: direct wet mount, Sheather's sugar flotation, formalin-ether sedimentation, modified Ziehl-Neelsen and direct fluorescent antibody (DFA). The infection rate was 8.56, 37.3 and 4.6 in Iraq, Jordan and Malaysia, respectively. A combination of formalin ether sedimentation and acid fast stain was used to detect Cryptosporidium oocysts in Iraq. The DFA test showed the highest sensitivity for samples of children in Jordan. In Malaysia, direct wet mount, formalin-ether sedimentation, modified Ziehl-Neelsen and DFA gave the same results (4.62%) while Sheather's sugar flotation was 3.85%. Source of drinking water appeared to be an important risk factor in transmission of infection. In Jordan, the high rate of infection was recorded in rainy season (January-May).

Sarcocystosis is a zoonotic disease caused by a coccidian intracellular protozoan parasite of the genus Sarcocystis. More than 200 Sarcocystis species have been recorded and the parasites are found in mammals, birds and reptiles. They require two hosts to complete their life cycle. In Malaysia, sarcocystosis was reported as a potential emerging food and water-borne disease after a series of large outbreak of human infections. There was not enough attention given before even though it was reported in both humans and animals. The first human case of invasive muscular sarcocystosis among local Malaysian was reported in 1975. Besides, a retrospective autopsy examination on 100 tongues revealed 21% positive cases. On top of that, a sero-epidemiological survey conducted in 243 subjects in West Malaysia showed that 19.7% had Sarcocystis antibodies. The clinical symptoms of muscular sarcocystosis were first described comprehensively in 1999. Meanwhile, many types of animals including livestock were found harbor the sarcocysts in their tissue. The first case of human intestinal sarcocystosis was reported in 2014. This review indicates that human sarcocystosis is currently endemic in Malaysia and parallel to that reported in animals. However, more studies and investigations need to be conducted since the source of human infection remains unknown.

Sarcocystis sp. infection was investigated in 20 necropsied captive wild mammals and 20 birds in 2 petting zoos in Malaysia. The gross post-mortem lesions in mammals showed marbling of the liver with uniform congestion of the intestine, and for birds, there was atrophy of the sternal muscles with hemorrhage and edema of the lungs in 2 birds. Naked eye examination was used for detection of macroscopic sarcocysts, and muscle squash for microscopic type. Only microscopically visible cysts were detected in 8 animals and species identification was not possible. Histological examination of the sections of infected skeletal muscles showed more than 5 sarcocysts in each specimen. No leukocytic infiltration was seen in affected organs. The shape of the cysts was elongated or circular, and the mean size reached 254 x 24.5 micrometer and the thickness of the wall up to 2.5 micrometer. Two stages were recognized in the cysts, the peripheral metrocytes and large numbers of crescent shaped merozoites. Out of 40 animals examined, 3 mammals and 5 birds were positive (20%). The infection rate was 15% and 25% in mammals and birds, respectively. Regarding the organs, the infection rate was 50% in the skeletal muscles followed by tongue and heart (37.5%), diaphragm (25%), and esophagus (12.5%). Further ultrastructural studies are required to identify the species of Sarcocystis that infect captive wild animals and their possible role in zoonosis.
Animals ; Animals, Wild/*parasitology ; Animals, Zoo/*parasitology ; Cell Size ; Malaysia/epidemiology ; Muscle, Skeletal/pathology ; Sarcocystis/cytology/growth & development/*isolation & purification ; Sarcocystosis/epidemiology/parasitology/*veterinary

OBJECTIVETo compare Wuchereria bancrofti (W. bancrofti) infection rates of Culex quinquefasciatus, using dissection and PCR-ELISA in two consecutive time periods (from 2007 to 2008 and from 2008 to 2009).

METHODSMosquitoes were collected in 30 sentinel and 15 non-sentinel sites in 15 Medical Officer of Health areas of Gampaha District known for the presence of W. bancrofti transmission in two consecutive time period of 2007 to 2008 and 2008 to 2009. Captured mosquitoes were dissected to determine the W. bancrofti larvae (L1, L2, L3). PCR was carried out using DNA extracted from mosquito pools (15 body parts/pool) utilizing the primers specific for Wb-SspI repeat. PCR products were analyzed by hybridization ELISA using fluorescein-labeled wild type specific probes. The prevalence of infected/infective mosquitoes in PCR pools (3 pools/site) was estimated using the PoolScreen™ algorithm and a novel probability-based method.

RESULTSOf 45 batches of mosquitoes dissected, W. bancrofti infected mosquitoes were found in 19 and 13 batches, with an infection rate of 13.29% and 3.10% with mean larval density of 8.7 and 1.0 larvae per mosquito for two study periods in the Gampaha District. Total of 405 pools of head, thorax and abdomen were processed by PCR-ELISA for each year. Of these, 51 and 31 pools were positive for W. bancrofti in the two study periods respectively. The association of dissection based prevalence rates with PCR based rates as determined by the Pearson correlation coefficient were 0.176 and 0.890 respectively for the two periods.

CONCLUSIONSData indicate that PCR-ELISA is more sensitive than the traditional dissection techniques for monitoring transmission intensity.

Animals ; Culicidae ; parasitology ; Elephantiasis, Filarial ; epidemiology ; transmission ; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay ; Humans ; Polymerase Chain Reaction ; Population Surveillance ; Prevalence ; Sri Lanka ; epidemiology ; Wuchereria bancrofti ; genetics ; immunology