Tackling socioeconomic inequalities in health risk factors is an important pathway for alleviating health inequalities. The aim of this study was to analyze the current state of inequality in health risk factors by socioeconomic status in Korea through a literature review of recently published studies and description of secondary data from the Korea National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (KNHANES). We evaluated the extent and trends of socioeconomic inequalities in health behavior (smoking, high-risk alcohol drinking, moderate exercise, and nutritional deficiency) and clinical risk factors (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity) with 1998 to 2010 KNHANES data based on socio-economic status. Furthermore, we summarized the impact of several distal health determinants like income, education and occupation, and childhood period on health inequalities in Korea. The results showed that a wide range of health risk factors including more distal causes were socio-economically patterned to varying degrees. In order to reduce health inequalities by socioeconomic status, more comprehensive monitoring and measures, and well-designed studies are required for promoting the understanding of the causal pathway and developing interventional strategies.
Alcohol Drinking ; Diabetes Mellitus ; Health Behavior ; Hypercholesterolemia ; Korea ; Occupations ; Risk Factors ; Social Class ; Socioeconomic Factors

Both social interest in and studies of socioeconomic inequalities in health have increased in recent years. This article presents the current state of socioeconomic inequalities in health status in Korea, based on recent research. Socioeconomic inequalities in health status have been consistently observed in Korea as well as abroad. In both men and women, from birth-sometimes evenfrom before birth-to death, inverse relationships between socioeconomic position and most indicators of healthexist. For some health indicators, such as suicide, absolute and relative inequalities have become significantly worse than in the past. Knowledge of health inequalities in small geographic areas can be useful for allocating health resources. Representative indicators of socioeconomic inequalities in health shouldundergo ongoing monitoringby the government. In addition, there is a need for research to explore the mechanisms and to evaluate the effectiveness of specific policies and intervention programs as well as to identify socioeconomic inequalities in a variety of health outcomes. Learning the status of and trends in socioeconomic inequalities in health isan essential step toward increasing awareness of these inequalities in society and promoting an integrated and systematic policy for tackling them.
Female ; Health Resources ; Humans ; Korea ; Learning ; Male ; Socioeconomic Factors ; Suicide

The purpose of this study was to investigate the root resorption and repair pattern of human teeth according to the force magnitude, direction and duration during the initial leveling and alignment phase. 40gms to 500gms of force applied to the 37 experimental teeth with duration of 3 weeks to 7 months. Then, the experimental teeth were extracted. 13 control teeth were extracted without treatment. The results are as follows: 1. 59.5% of 37 teeth exhibited root resorption. The initial resorption site was visible at the apex within 3 weeks with 100 gins samples, and the initial repair site was visible at the apex within 3 months with 400 gms samples. 2. Number of resorbed teeth increased with the duration of the force. 3. The depth of the resorption increased with the magnitude of the,force. 4. The areas of resorbed root corresponded with the loading pattern. 5. The areas of resorbed root were highly correlated with the magnitude of the force. The result of this study suggest that root resorption could occur during the initial leveling and alignment phase. These initial injuries are all small and insignificant. It is the extensive type of apical root resorption that must be regarded as deleterious to the function and stability of the tooth moved. During the initial leveling and alignment phase lighter force of the interrupted type and short treatment period would be favorable with regard to avoidance of root resorption and repair of resorbed root surface.
Humans ; Microscopy, Electron, Scanning ; Orthodontics* ; Root Resorption ; Tooth

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of workplace violence in European countries and Korea, and to determine the relationship between the prevalence of workplace violence and gender equality in each country. The level of gender equality was used as a proxy for the sensitivity to and awareness of workplace violence. Methods: This study included 30,032 Europeans from the 6th European Working Conditions Survey and 39,675 Koreans from the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey.Workplace violence included verbal abuse, unwanted sexual attention, threats, and humiliating behaviors over the past month and physical violence, sexual harassment, and bullying or harassment over the past year. The prevalence of workplace violence was standardized using the direct standardization method. Spearman’s rank correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the prevalence of workplace violence and Gender Gap Index (GGI) adjusted for the Gini coefficient, unemployment rate, and share of temporary employment. Results: Countries with a high GGI showed a higher prevalence of workplace violence.Even after adjusting for the Gini coefficient, unemployment rate, and share of temporary employment, the positive correlations between the GGI and workplace violence over the past month (r=0.475, P=0.019) and workplace violence over the past year (r=0.692, P=0.001) were still significant. Conclusion This study is significant in that it addressed the issue of underreporting violence despite data limitations. Public intervention should be considered to increase sensitivity to workplace violence and prevent workplace violence.

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of workplace violence in European countries and Korea, and to determine the relationship between the prevalence of workplace violence and gender equality in each country. The level of gender equality was used as a proxy for the sensitivity to and awareness of workplace violence. Methods: This study included 30,032 Europeans from the 6th European Working Conditions Survey and 39,675 Koreans from the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey.Workplace violence included verbal abuse, unwanted sexual attention, threats, and humiliating behaviors over the past month and physical violence, sexual harassment, and bullying or harassment over the past year. The prevalence of workplace violence was standardized using the direct standardization method. Spearman’s rank correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the prevalence of workplace violence and Gender Gap Index (GGI) adjusted for the Gini coefficient, unemployment rate, and share of temporary employment. Results: Countries with a high GGI showed a higher prevalence of workplace violence.Even after adjusting for the Gini coefficient, unemployment rate, and share of temporary employment, the positive correlations between the GGI and workplace violence over the past month (r=0.475, P=0.019) and workplace violence over the past year (r=0.692, P=0.001) were still significant. Conclusion This study is significant in that it addressed the issue of underreporting violence despite data limitations. Public intervention should be considered to increase sensitivity to workplace violence and prevent workplace violence.

Objectives: This study investigated the association between exacerbated economic hardship during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and changes in the health behaviors of Korean adolescents. Methods: We analyzed data from the 2021 Korea Youth Risk Behavior Survey and included 44 908 students (22 823 boys and 22 085 girls) as study subjects. The dependent variables included changes in health behaviors (breakfast habits, physical activity, and alcohol use) that occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aggravation of economic hardship by COVID-19 and the subjective economic status of the family were used as exposure variables. Multiple logistic regression analysis was utilized to calculate the prevalence odds ratios (PORs). Results: Severe exacerbation of a family’s economic hardship due to COVID-19 was negatively associated with the health behaviors of adolescents, including increased breakfast skipping (POR, 1.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.55 to 2.21 for boys and POR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.27 to 1.92 for girls) and decreased physical activity (POR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.19 to 1.57 for boys and POR, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.19 to 1.60 for girls). These negative changes in health behaviors were further amplified when combined with a low subjective family economic status. Conclusions The experience of worsening household hardship can lead to negative changes in health behavior among adolescents. It is crucial to implement measures that address the economic challenges that arise from stressful events such as COVID-19 and to strive to improve the lifestyles of adolescents under such circumstances.

OBJECTIVES: Research on workplace violence has been conducted, but rarely has been organized systematically. In this study, we summarize the definition and classification of workplace violence studies and review the literature on workplace violence. METHODS: Using academic search engines PubMed, Google Scholar and DBpia, we found 856 papers including “workplace violence” and “adverse social behavior” AND workplace in the title published until December 2018, and 208 papers were selected. The selected papers were classified by continent and country, year of publication, occupation, classification criteria of workplace violence, and research topic. RESULTS: By country, the number of articles in the United States was the most with 40 (19.2%), followed by China 27 (13%), Korea 16 (7.7%), and Taiwan and Australia 15 (7.2%). By job category, healthcare workers accounted for the largest portion with 162 (79.0%) of the total, and 80 of them were conducted on nurses. Other occupations included civil servants, manufacturing workers, toll collectors and wageworkers. Among the classification methods of workplace violence, 147 (67.4%) articles were classified as type and there was a difference in the type of violence defined for each article. In the research topic, 114 (44.2%) articles analyzed the effects of workplace violence, and 105 (40.7%) articles describe the prevalence and characteristics of workplace violence, and 23 (8.9%) articles analyzing the causes of violence. CONCLUSION: The research topic is biased toward the field of healthcare, so it is necessary to expand to include various occupations or other specified occupations. It is also necessary to prepare appropriate measures against workplace violence.
Australia ; Bias (Epidemiology) ; China ; Classification ; Delivery of Health Care ; Exposure to Violence ; Korea ; Occupations ; Prevalence ; Publications ; Search Engine ; Taiwan ; United States ; Violence ; Workplace Violence

OBJECTIVES: Breast cancer incidence and mortality rates in Korea are increasing. This study analyzed income-based inequalities in the incidence and mortality of women breast cancer from 2006 to 2015, using national data that covered all Korean women. METHODS: We used the National Health Information Database from 2006 to 2015. For women aged 20 and older, the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 by income quintile per year were calculated using the direct method. The rate ratio and rate difference (RD) of the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 between the top and bottom income quintiles were calculated as relative and absolute measures for inequalities. RESULTS: When comparing 2006 and 2015, both the incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer increased. The lowest income quintile experienced higher mortality rates despite having lower incidence rates. In 2015, the income-based RD in incidence and mortality rates between the highest and lowest income quintiles (Q1-Q5) was -19.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], -24.3 to -15.5) and 4.4 (95% CI, 2.9 to 5.8), respectively. Throughout this period, there was no statistically significant trend in income-based disparities in breast cancer incidence and mortality. The age-specific contributions to the absolute magnitude of inequality (RD) in incidence and mortality were more pronounced among middle-aged women than among older women. CONCLUSIONS This study found that breast cancer in Korea exhibited pro-rich inequalities in mortality despite pro-poor inequalities in incidence. More equitable policies for screening and treatment of breast cancer are needed.

OBJECTIVES: Breast cancer incidence and mortality rates in Korea are increasing. This study analyzed income-based inequalities in the incidence and mortality of women breast cancer from 2006 to 2015, using national data that covered all Korean women. METHODS: We used the National Health Information Database from 2006 to 2015. For women aged 20 and older, the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 by income quintile per year were calculated using the direct method. The rate ratio and rate difference (RD) of the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 between the top and bottom income quintiles were calculated as relative and absolute measures for inequalities. RESULTS: When comparing 2006 and 2015, both the incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer increased. The lowest income quintile experienced higher mortality rates despite having lower incidence rates. In 2015, the income-based RD in incidence and mortality rates between the highest and lowest income quintiles (Q1-Q5) was -19.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], -24.3 to -15.5) and 4.4 (95% CI, 2.9 to 5.8), respectively. Throughout this period, there was no statistically significant trend in income-based disparities in breast cancer incidence and mortality. The age-specific contributions to the absolute magnitude of inequality (RD) in incidence and mortality were more pronounced among middle-aged women than among older women. CONCLUSIONS This study found that breast cancer in Korea exhibited pro-rich inequalities in mortality despite pro-poor inequalities in incidence. More equitable policies for screening and treatment of breast cancer are needed.

OBJECTIVES: Breast cancer incidence and mortality rates in Korea are increasing. This study analyzed income-based inequalities in the incidence and mortality of women breast cancer from 2006 to 2015, using national data that covered all Korean women. METHODS: We used the National Health Information Database from 2006 to 2015. For women aged 20 and older, the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 by income quintile per year were calculated using the direct method. The rate ratio and rate difference (RD) of the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer per 100,000 between the top and bottom income quintiles were calculated as relative and absolute measures for inequalities. RESULTS: When comparing 2006 and 2015, both the incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer increased. The lowest income quintile experienced higher mortality rates despite having lower incidence rates. In 2015, the income-based RD in incidence and mortality rates between the highest and lowest income quintiles (Q1-Q5) was -19.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], -24.3 to -15.5) and 4.4 (95% CI, 2.9 to 5.8), respectively. Throughout this period, there was no statistically significant trend in income-based disparities in breast cancer incidence and mortality. The age-specific contributions to the absolute magnitude of inequality (RD) in incidence and mortality were more pronounced among middle-aged women than among older women. CONCLUSIONS This study found that breast cancer in Korea exhibited pro-rich inequalities in mortality despite pro-poor inequalities in incidence. More equitable policies for screening and treatment of breast cancer are needed.