This paper aims to redress serious imbalances in the research on ginseng. Most accounts of ginseng treat it as an exclusively East Asian commodity, and are dominated by the natural sciences. Ginseng, however, was much discussed in England and America in the early modern period: the discussion encompassed not only botanical and medical interests, but also discourses on the commercial marketability of ginseng; ginseng was also an item that embodied European prejudices, symbolizing perceived 'differences' between the West and East. As such, ginseng was an 'indigenous' item of 'the East' that was much discussed in 'the West', but one that resisted assimilation into its systems of knowledge.
Americas* ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Botany ; England* ; Humans ; Natural Science Disciplines ; Panax* ; Prejudice

After the defeat of the Opium War and the Sino-Japanese War, China's intellectuals realized necessity of modernization (Westernization) to survive in the imperial order of the survival of the fittest. In particular, it was urgent to accept Western medicine and train the doctors who learned Western medicine to change the sick and weary Chinese to be robust. Thus, new occupations of the Western Medicine Group (xiyi, doctors who learned Western medicine) emerged in China. As with the first profession, the new Western Medicine Group tried to define standards of Western medicine and medical profession; however, it was difficult in the absence of the strong central government. In addition, they formed a faction by the country where they studied or the language they learned. The factions included the Britain - America faction(yingmeipai) consisting of the Britain - America studied doctors or graduates from Protestant missions based medical schools, and the Germany - Japan faction(deripai), graduates from medical schools by Japanese or German government and the Chinese government. In 1915, they founded the National Medical Association of China mainly consisting of the Britain - America faction and the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China led by the Germany – Japan faction. Initially, exchanges were active so most of eminent doctors belonged the two associations at the same time. They had a consciousness of a common occupation group as a doctor who had learned Western medicine. Thus, they actively cooperated to keep their profits against Chinese medicine and enjoy their reputation. Their cooperation emitted light particularly in translation of medical terms and unified works. Thanks to cooperation, the two associations selected medical terminologies by properly using the cases of the West and Japan. Additionally, medical schools of the Britain - America faction and the Germany – Japan faction produced various levels of the Western Medicine Group doctors for China to timely respond to the rapidly increased demand. However, a conflict over the promotion of hygiene administration and the unification, organization of medical education did not end. This conflict was deepening as the Nanjing nationalist government promoted sanitary administration. It was the Britain - America faction who seized a chance of victory. It was because figures from the Britain - America faction held important positions in the hygiene department. Of course, some related to the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China were also involved in the hygiene department; however, most took charge of simple technical tasks, not having a significant impact on hygiene administration. To solve the problem of factions of the Western Medicine Group, the Britain - America faction or the Germany - Japan faction had to arrange the education system with a strong power, or to organize a new association of two factions mixed, as in Chinese faction(zhonghuapai). But an effort of the Britain - America faction to unify the systems of medical schools did not reach the Germany - Japan faction's medical schools. Additionally, from 1928, executives of the two Chinese medical associations discussed their merger; however they could not agree because of practitioners'interests involved. Substantially, a conflict between factions of the Western Medicine Group continued even until the mid-1930s. This implies that the then Chinese government had a lack of capacity of uniting and organizing the medical community.
Americas ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; China* ; Consciousness ; Education ; Education, Medical ; Germany ; Humans ; Hygiene ; Japan ; Occupations ; Opium ; Protestantism ; Religious Missions ; Schools, Medical ; Social Change

This article investigates the historical background and distinctive characteristics of the Korean food hygiene policy during the 1960s. The 3 main findings of this study are as follows. First, Food Sanitation Law in the 1960s was established too hastily and thus mistakenly accommodated two discordant laws as American style law and empire of Japan style law. The legislation of Food Sanitation Law was progressed too quickly for the justification purpose of 5·16 military coup, as one of reorganization tasks of the Korean legal structure established under Japanese imperialism, Second, a division in charge of food hygiene in the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs was newly installed in 1967, as an outcome reflecting a variety of social demand, at least, minimally. Rongalite shock in Korea prompted diverse suggestions for preventing unfortunate accidents from toxic and harmful food. However, Korean Government did not provide the division with necessary budget and manpower to implement relevant regulations. Third, "the special law against health crimes" legislated in 1969, was characterized by severe punishment policy which might be performed afterward but not by protective measures against accidents in advance. The law enabled regulators to punish corrupt dealers up to life sentence. For the constitutional amendment for President for the third term, Park Chung-hee's regime tried to calm down the complaints of people. In sum, the regulations of Korean food hygiene in the 1960s were identified as government practices using an interesting combination of low costs and severe punishments.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Budgets ; Humans ; Hygiene* ; Institutionalization* ; Japan ; Jurisprudence ; Korea ; Legislation as Topic ; Military Personnel ; Punishment ; Sanitation ; Shock ; Social Control, Formal

Until the 1950s, Ascaris was regarded as an essential part of life which controls every aspect of human physiology among Koreans. Therefore, Ascaris should not be removed from human body. Efforts from medical professionals and the Korean government officials who wished to push forward the parasite control program, had to constantly contest with this perception of Ascaris among ordinary Koreans. In 1966, the 'Parasitic Disease Prevention Act' was promulgated and 'the Korean Association for Parasite Eradication (KAPE)' established in Korea. From the 1970s, Korea mobilized 15 million people each year to achieve the eradication goal. Such mass mobilization could not be possible without public awareness on necessity of parasite eradication. Until the early 1960s, however, Korean people were not sympathetic to the needs of eradication of parasites, especially that of Ascaris. Then, what changed the social perception towards Ascaris during the 1960s? What contributing factors allowed the mass mobilization and public involvement for that campaign? Employing newspaper articles and periodicals, this paper analyzes how social perception on Ascariasis changed during the 1960s, when the 'Parasitic Disease Prevention Act' was established. During the 1960s, Ascariasis became a shameful disease for Koreans. A series of events made Ascariasis more visible and shameful to Koreans. First event happened with Korean miners who were dispatched to Germany in 1963. When the miners turned out to have been infected with intestinal parasites, they were prohibited from work at the mines by the authorities in Germany and quarantined for several weeks. This humiliating experience of Korean expatriate people having bodies swarmed with parasites became a national shame to Koreans. The parasite infected bodies of Korean workers were revealed to the World through German newspapers. Second event happened when a child died of intestinal obstruction due to Ascariasis. The doctor retrieved 1,063 Ascaris from the bowel of the 9 year-old girl, and the photo of the 1,063 worms was published in several newspapers. It was a shocking visualization of Ascariasis in Korean society. Through these visualizations of Ascariasis, the Korean society began to perceive Ascariasis as a shame of the nation as well as that of an individual.
Ascariasis* ; Ascaris ; Child ; Communicable Disease Control ; Female ; Germany ; Human Body ; Humans ; Intestinal Obstruction ; Korea* ; Miners ; Occupational Groups ; Parasites ; Periodicals ; Physiology ; Shame* ; Shock ; Social Perception

The origin of the periodic health examination can be traced to Horace Dobell, a British physician. The periodic health examination became popular in the early 20th century with many advocates such as the life insurance companies, private corporate industry, medical professionals, and the prepaid health care in North America. The contents and legitimacy of periodic health examination has changed markedly over time according to the objectives. There were various objectives of the periodic health examination according to the advocates: reduction of morbidity and mortality, scientific knowledge, economic savings, professional empowerment, the patient-physician relationship, satisfaction of patient demand, and efficient administration. Recent remarkable changes led by Canadian Task Force and U.S. Preventive Services Task Force were the emphasis of reduction of disease-specific morbidity and mortality, risk adjusted application, and the inclusion of counseling, immunization, and chemoprophylaxis. Health screening has become a promising medical practice in Korea. The main environment of the periodic health examination in Korea is fee-for-service system, the national medical insurance system, and Korean cultural background. However, the consensus of Korean government and society for controlling medical cost will limit the irrational prosperity of periodic health examination in near future.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Patient Education/*history ; Preventive Health Services/*history

The authors attempted a pdssibility of unifcation in the educational curricula of both Oriental and Western medical schools for the unification of two medicines . Historically the two medicines were originated from the most primitive state like intinctive method and we can say two medicines were entirely same. However after abrupt and current development of science in 19 century by discovery of microscope and bacteria as well as cells changed medicine into recent unbelievable current medicine from old ancient style medicine like Chinese Medicine which was just the remnant old medicine. The unification of educational curricular is thought to be possible to combine each other by technical adjustment from mutual understanding and cooperations for the most high quality of people's lives. There were good equality to partial corrrespondances between two educational curricular around 90 % at two pre- and schools from the study to analyse. The combined medicine is thought to be more efficient to the diagnosis and treatment of patients because of the effectiveness of Oriental medicine in a certain disease conditions like chronic illness by acupuncture as a alternative medicine or herbs.
*Curriculum ; Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Medicine, Oriental Traditional/*history ; Western World/*history

The object of this study is to investigate the routes of the introduction of the western psychiatric knowledges and practices in Korea. The historical documents including newspapers and governmental bullettins as well as articles and books on the history of the Korean medicine were examined and the results are as follows: The western knowledge about the brain anatomy and physiology was introduced from China by the enlightened Confucian and Taoistic scholars of Korea in the mid seventeenth century through the Chinese translations of the western science and medicine. Due to the lack of support for the scholars and even persecution by the ruling power to those who had great interests in the western thoughts including sciences, the western medical knowledges could not be actualized in practice. Thus, the active practices of western medicine were started in the late 19th century in Korea through the two routes ; one, via Japanese military physicians and the other one, via the western missionary physicians. The psychiatry was lectured by Japanese psychiatrist in 1910 at the medical school of Tai-Han Ui-won, the Korean governmental clinic and in 1913 at the Severance medical school by the Australian psychiatrist, McLaren. As the independent department with the psychiatric ward, the first Dept. of Psychiatry was established in 1913 at the colonial governmental clinic, Chosun Chondokbu-Uiwon, the former Tai-Han Ui-won. Medicine as well as psychiatry was introduced into Korea under the political atmosphere of onesided admiration for the western science. The attempts to combine the western medicine with the traditional Korean medicine could not be tolerated by both missionary physicians and the colonial regime.
Colonialism/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Missions and Missionaries/*history ; Psychiatry/*history ; Western World/*history

"Sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" came into the world four hundred years ago when Traditonal Chinese Medicine(TCM) contacted Western Medicine(WM) at the begining of 17th century. It collected historical experiences showing that the cooperation of TCM and WM is more efficient for the cure and prevention of disease than each of them separately. Now the recognition that the cooperation of eastern and western medicine is more efficient to cure disease is spreading widely. This study will help Korean eastern and western medicine to find their directions. First, the concept of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" which was established between the beginning of 17th century and the middle of 20th century, and Integration of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine(ITCWM) which was formed after the middle of 20th century will be discussed. The relationship of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM and political consideration for the establishment of ITCWM will also be discussed. Finally, the current status of ITCWM in China will be discussed. New trends of thought appeared in Chinese medicine, owing to the cultural background of modern China, the development of WM, and the academic backgound of the intellectual class. "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM are different in historical and social background. However, purpose, foundation of thoughts and logical idea are fundamentally same. It can be said that "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" provided academic mood to open the way for ITCWM and ITCWM is a succession of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine". The concept of ITCWM has many ways of explanation. However, it can be said to build up the foundation of new medical area including Chinese special way of medical treatment and new methods of modern medicine, succeeding a legacy of TCM. ITCWM began before the establishment of People's Republic of China. Mao Ze-dong(1893-1976), a powerful politician, and Li Ding-ming(1881-1947) who had many experiences and insight for TCM and WM played important roles at this stage. The period from the New China to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution(1966-1975) is the term for the establishment of the shape of ITCWM. "The effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" was adapted as one of hygienic policies for curing of epidemic disease and succession and development of the heritage of TCM to establish new medical area. TCM class for western medical doctors was opened and mass media was used to spread out ITCWM throughout China. During the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, ITCWM has to be stepped back and stagnant. Only the TCM class of western medical doctors and some clinical applications were barely keep moving on and alive. From the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to the end of 1980's, there are the movement of re-preparation of ITCWM, education of successors, and the establishment of the Institute of ITCWM. Hospitals began to establish department of ITCWM. Furthermore, it was clearly indicated in the constitutional law that "we not only have to develop modern medicine but also traditional medicine". The equality of TCM and WM was legally established in this time. From the 1990's, "equality of TCM and WM" was adapted as one of the hygienic policies, and department of ITCWM was opened in traditional chinese medical school and western medical school. ITCWM has been settled down as a new academic field through education, training, research, academic activity, and publishing text books. In conclusion, the motive of the development of ITCWM was the policy such as "the effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" and "equality of TCM and WM" aimed at the development of Chinese medical area. It is no doubted helpful to organize systems and policy-making for the cooperation of eastern and western medicine in Korea.
China ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Medicine, Traditional/*history ; Philosophy/*history ; Western World/*history

In this study, the career and official ranks of the authors of the Sejong text(1443-1445), Sejo text(1451-1464), and Seongjong text(1475-1477) of {Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions} were investigated. In the completion of Sejong text, Kim Rye-mong(1406-1469), Ryu Seong-won(?-1456), and Min Bo-hua(?) collected and arranged all medical books inside and outside of Choseon; Kim Moon(?-1448), Shin Seok-jo(1407-1459), Lee Ye(1419-1480), Kim Soo-on(1410-1481), Jeon Soon-eui(?), Choi Yun(?), and Kim Yu-ji(?-1469) took part in the edition; Lee Yong(1418-1453), Lee Sa-cheol(1405-1456), Lee Sa-soon(?-1455), and Rho Joong-rye(?-1452) participated in the editorial supervision. Ryang Seong-ji(1415-1482), Son So(1433-1484), Ryu Yo(?), Han Chi-ryang(?), An Geuk-sang(?), Han Kye-mi(1421-1471), Choi Young-rin(?) took part in the completion of Sejo text. Han Kye-heui(1423-1482), Rym Won-joon(1423-1500), Kueon Chan(1430-1487), Ryu Seo(?), and Baek Soo-heui(?) participated in the completion of Seongjong text. All 96 persons participated in the completion of draft text, revision text, and first-publication text of {Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions}. 14 persons (14.58 %) participated in the completion of draft text. 77 persons (80.21%) participated in revision text, and 5 persons (5.21%) participated in first-publication text. Even though {Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions} is a medical book, civil officials participated in its completion together with medical officials. The scholars of Jiphyeonjeon(The Jade Hall of Scholars) who led the academy at those days and famous medical officials were ordered to complete it by Sejong(1419-1450), Sejo(1455-1468), and Seongjong(1470-1494) who showed special interest in thier own heath and the health of common people.
Books/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 15th Cent. ; Korea ; *Medicine ; Prescriptions, Drug/*history

The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male was an observational study on African-American males in Tuskegee, Alabama between 1932 and 1972. The U. S. Public Health Service ran this study on more than 300 people without notifying the participants about their disease nor treating them even after the introduction of penicillin. The study included recording the progress of disease and performing an autopsy on the deaths. This paper explores historical backgrounds enabled this infamous study, and discusses three driving forces behind the Tuskegee Study. First, it is important to understand that the Public Health Service was established in the U. S. Surgeon General's office and was operated as a military organization. Amidst the development of an imperial agenda of the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the PHS was responsible for protecting hygiene and the superiority of “the American race” against infectious foreign elements from the borders. The U.S. Army's experience of medical experiments in colonies and abroad was imported back to the country and formed a crucial part of the attitude and philosophy on public health. Secondly, the growing influence of eugenics and racial pathology at the time reinforced discriminative views on minorities. Progressivism was realized in the form of domestic reform and imperial pursuit at the same time. Major medical journals argued that blacks were inclined to have certain defects, especially sexually transmitted diseases like syphilis, because of their prodigal behavior and lack of hygiene. This kind of racial ideas were shared by the PHS officials who were in charge of the Tuskegee Study. Lastly, the PHS officials believed in continuing the experiment regardless of various social changes. They considered that black participants were not only poor but also ignorant of and even unwilling to undergo the treatment. When the exposure of the experiment led to the Senate investigation in 1973, the participating doctors of the PHS maintained that their study offered valuable contribution to the medical research. This paper argues that the combination of the efficiency of military medicine, progressive and imperial racial ideology, and discrimination on African-Americans resulted in the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment.
African Continental Ancestry Group ; Alabama ; Autopsy ; Discrimination (Psychology) ; Eugenics ; Humans ; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration ; Hygiene ; Male ; Military Medicine ; Military Personnel ; Observational Study ; Pathology ; Penicillins ; Philosophy ; Public Health* ; Sexually Transmitted Diseases ; Social Change ; Syphilis ; United States Public Health Service ; United States*