Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the retina’s output neurons, encode visual information through spiking. The RGC receptive field (RF) represents the basic unit of visual information processing in the retina. RFs are commonly estimated using the spike-triggered average (STA), which is the average of the stimulus patterns to which a given RGC is sensitive. Whereas STA, based on the concept of the average, is simple and intuitive, it leaves more complex structures in the RFs undetected. Alternatively, spike-triggered covariance (STC) analysis provides information on second-order RF statistics. However, STC is computationally cumbersome and difficult to interpret. Thus, the objective of this study was to propose and validate a new computational method, called spike-triggered clustering (STCL), specific for multimodal RFs. Specifically, RFs were fit with a Gaussian mixture model, which provides the means and covariances of multiple RF clusters. The proposed method recovered bipolar stimulus patterns in the RFs of ON-OFF cells, while the STA identified only ON and OFF RGCs, and the remaining RGCs were labeled as unknown types. In contrast, our new STCL analysis distinguished ON-OFF RGCs from the ON, OFF, and unknown RGC types classified by STA. Thus, the proposed method enables us to include ON-OFF RGCs prior to retinal information analysis.

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) encode various spatiotemporal features of visual information into spiking patterns. The receptive field (RF) of each RGC is usually calculated by spike-triggered average (STA), which is fast and easy to understand, but limited to simple and unimodal RFs. As an alternative, spike-triggered covariance (STC) has been proposed to characterize more complex patterns in RFs. This study compares STA and STC for the characterization of RFs and demonstrates that STC has an advantage over STA for identifying novel spatiotemporal features of RFs in mouse RGCs. We first classified mouse RGCs into ON, OFF, and ON/OFF cells according to their response to full-field light stimulus, and then investigated the spatiotemporal patterns of RFs with random checkerboard stimulation, using both STA and STC analysis. We propose five sub-types (T1-T5) in the STC of mouse RGCs together with their physiological implications. In particular, the relatively slow biphasic pattern (T1) could be related to excitatory inputs from bipolar cells. The transient biphasic pattern (T2) allows one to characterize complex patterns in RFs of ON/OFF cells. The other patterns (T3-T5), which are contrasting, alternating, and monophasic patterns, could be related to inhibitory inputs from amacrine cells. Thus, combining STA and STC and considering the proposed sub-types unveil novel characteristics of RFs in the mouse retina and offer a more holistic understanding of the neural coding mechanisms of mouse RGCs.

Neurons communicate with other neurons in response to environmental changes. Their goal is to transmit information to their targets reliably. A burst, which consists of multiple spikes within a short time interval, plays an essential role in enhancing the reliability of information transmission through synapses. In the visual system, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the output neurons of the retina, show bursting activity and transmit retinal information to the lateral geniculate neuron of the thalamus. In this study, to extend our interest to the population level, the burstings of multiple RGCs were simultaneously recorded using a multi-channel recording system. As the first step in network analysis, we focused on investigating the pairwise burst correlation between two RGCs. Furthermore, to assess if the population bursting is preserved across species, we compared the synchronized bursting of RGCs between marmoset monkey (callithrix jacchus), one species of the new world monkeys and mouse (C57BL/6J strain). First, monkey RGCs showed a larger number of spikes within a burst, while the inter-spike interval, burst duration, and inter-burst interval were smaller compared with mouse RGCs. Monkey RGCs showed a strong burst synchronization between RGCs, whereas mouse RGCs showed no correlated burst firing. Monkey RGC pairs showed significantly higher burst synchrony and mutual information than mouse RGC pairs did.Comprehensively, through this study, we emphasize that two species have a different bursting activity of RGCs and different burst synchronization suggesting two species have distinctive retinal processing.

Since genetic models for retinal degeneration (RD) in animals larger than rodents have not been firmly established to date, we sought in the present study to develop a new rabbit model of drug-induced RD. First, intravitreal injection of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) without vitrectomy in rabbits was performed with different doses. One month after injection, morphological changes in the retinas were identified with ultra-wide-field color fundus photography (FP) and fundus autofluorescence (AF) imaging as well as spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT). Notably, the degree of RD was not consistently correlated with MNU dose. Then, to check the effects of vitrectomy on MNU-induced RD, the intravitreal injection of MNU after vitrectomy in rabbits was also performed with different doses. In OCT, while there were no significant changes in the retinas for injections up to 0.1 mg (i.e., sham, 0.05 mg, and 0.1 mg), outer retinal atrophy and retinal atrophy of the whole layer were observed with MNU injections of 0.3 mg and 0.5 mg, respectively. With this outcome, 0.2 mg MNU was chosen to be injected into rabbit eyes (n=10) at two weeks after vitrectomy for further study. Six weeks after injection, morphological identification with FP, AF, OCT, and histology clearly showed localized outer RD - clearly bordered non-degenerated and degenerated outer retinal area - in all rabbits. We suggest our post-vitrectomy MNU-induced RD rabbit model could be used as an interim animal model for visual prosthetics before the transition to larger animal models.
Animals ; Atrophy ; Intravitreal Injections ; Methylnitrosourea ; Models, Animal ; Models, Genetic ; Photography ; Rabbits ; Retina ; Retinal Degeneration ; Retinaldehyde ; Rodentia ; Tomography, Optical Coherence ; Vitrectomy

Electrical stimulation through retinal prosthesis elicits both short and long-latency retinal ganglion cell (RGC) spikes. Because the short-latency RGC spike is usually obscured by electrical stimulus artifact, it is very important to isolate spike from stimulus artifact. Previously, we showed that topographic prominence (TP) discriminator based algorithm is valid and useful for artifact subtraction. In this study, we compared the performance of forward backward (FB) filter only vs. TP-adopted FB filter for artifact subtraction. From the extracted retinae of rd1 mice, we recorded RGC spikes with 8×8 multielectrode array (MEA). The recorded signals were classified into four groups by distances between the stimulation and recording electrodes on MEA (200-400, 400-600, 600-800, 800-1000 µm). Fifty cathodic phase-1(st) biphasic current pulses (duration 500 µs, intensity 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 µA) were applied at every 1 sec. We compared false positive error and false negative error in FB filter and TP-adopted FB filter. By implementing TP-adopted FB filter, short-latency spike can be detected better regarding sensitivity and specificity for detecting spikes regardless of the strength of stimulus and the distance between stimulus and recording electrodes.
Animals ; Artifacts ; Electric Stimulation ; Electrodes ; Mice ; Retina ; Retinal Ganglion Cells* ; Retinaldehyde* ; Sensitivity and Specificity ; Visual Prosthesis