In Korea, groundwater is main water source in livestock farms. Most dairy and cattle farms have constructed their own wells for human drinking and livestock farming. However, these private residential wells have not been controlled by government and also there was scant study about livestock drinking water quality. Therefore this study was to monitor of the livestock farms' groundwater quality in Korea. Water samples were collected at 123 dairy and cattle farms and were analysed forty six substances with quality standard for drinking water approved by the Minister of Environment. Seventy eight (63.4%) of 123 samples failed to drinking water stand a test. The most frequent contaminants were nitrate-nitrogen and microbial. 22.8% (n = 28) of samples showed nitrate-N concentration of higher than 10 mg/L meant that can't be used drinking water for human and the Nitrate-N concentration analysed in the range of 0.2 to 61.2 mg/L. All of 78 failed to drinking samples had microbial problems, especially 5.7% (n = 7) of samples indicated water could be contaminated by feces. Other contaminants detected were zinc and evaporation residue. Especially detected zinc concentration (32 mg/L) was about ten times higher than standard of zinc (3 mg/L). Regression analysis indicated that groundwater pH did not influence to nitrate-N concentration but the hardness and chloride could affect to nitrate-N concentration in the groundwater. Most livestock farms were adjacent to crop farmland in Korea. This could cause contamination of groundwater with nitrate-N and pesticide that could accumulate livestock product. Moreover Heavy metal such as zinc and copper could be released from a corrosive plated water pipe in livestock farm. Put together, Korea livestock system is indoor, not pasture-based, hence livestock could be exposed to potential contaminated water consistently. Therefore on the basis of these data, appropriate livestock drinking water quality standards should be prepared to keep livestock healthy and their product safe. Further, livestock drinking water quality should be monitored continuously in suitable livestock drinking water standards.
Animals ; Cattle ; Copper ; Drinking ; Drinking Water ; Feces ; Groundwater ; Hardness ; Humans ; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration ; Korea ; Livestock ; Organothiophosphorus Compounds ; Water ; Zinc

BACKGROUND: It has been recently noticed that type 2 diabetes (T2D), one of the most common metabolic diseases, causes a chronic low-grade inflammation and activation of the innate immune system that are closely involved in the pathogenesis of T2D. Cordyceps militaris, a traditional medicinal mushroom, produces a component compound, cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine). Cordycepin has been known to have many pharmacological activities including immunological stimulating, anti-cancer, and anti-infection activities. The molecular mechanisms of cordycepin in T2D are not clear. In the present study, we tested the role of cordycepin on the anti-diabetic effect and anti-inflammatory cascades in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. METHODS: We confirmed the levels of diabetes regulating genes mRNA and protein of cytokines through RT-PCR and western blot analysis and followed by FACS analysis for the surface molecules. RESULTS: Cordycepin inhibited the production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha in LPS-activated macrophages via suppressing protein expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. T2D regulating genes such as 11beta-HSD1 and PPARgamma were decreased as well as expression of co-stimulatory molecules such as ICAM-1 and B7-1/-2 were also decreased with the increment of its concentration. In accordance with suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokine production lead to inhibition of diabetic regulating genes in activated macrophages. Cordycepin suppressed NF-kappaB activation in LPS-activated macrophages. CONCLUSION: Based on these observations, cordycepin suppressed T2D regulating genes through the inactivation of NF-kappaB dependent inflammatory responses and suggesting that cordycepin will provide potential use as an immunomodulatory agent for treating immunological diseases.
11-beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 ; Agaricales ; Blotting, Western ; Cordyceps ; Cytokines ; Deoxyadenosines ; Immune System ; Inflammation ; Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 ; Interleukin-6 ; Macrophages ; Metabolic Diseases ; NF-kappa B ; PPAR gamma ; RNA, Messenger ; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha

BACKGROUND: Cordyceps militaris has been used in traditional medicine to treat numerous diseases and has been reported to possess both antitumor and immunomodulatory activities in vitro and in vivo. However, the pharmacological and biochemical mechanisms of Cordyceps militaris extract (CME) on macrophages have not been clearly elucidated. In the present study, we examined how CME induces the production of proinflammatory cytokines, transcription factor, and the expression of co-stimulatory molecules. METHODS: We confirmed the mRNA and protein levels of proinflammatory cytokines through RT-PCR and western blot analysis, followed by a FACS analysis for surface molecules. RESULTS: CME dose dependently increased the production of NO and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta, IL-6, TNF-alpha, and PGE(2), and it induced the protein levels of iNOS, COX-2, and proinflammatory cytokines in a concentration-dependent manner, as determined by western blot and RT-PCR analysis, respectively. The expression of co-stimulatory molecules such as ICAM-1, B7-1, and B7-2 was also enhanced by CME. Furthermore, the activation of the nuclear transcription factor, NF-kappaB in macrophages was stimulated by CME. CONCLUSION: Based on these observations, CME increased proinflammatory cytokines through the activation of NF-kappaB, further suggesting that CME may prove useful as an immune-enhancing agent in the treatment of immunological disease.
Blotting, Western ; Cordyceps ; Cytokines ; Immune System Diseases ; Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 ; Interleukin-6 ; Macrophages ; Medicine, Traditional ; NF-kappa B ; RNA, Messenger ; Transcription Factors ; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha

BACKGROUND: Chronic low grade inflammation is closely linked to type II diabetes, obesity, and atherosclerosis. Macrophages play a key role in the regulation of pro- or anti-inflammatory actions at the lesion sites of disease. Components of cordyceps militaris, cordycepin and adenosine, have been used for the modulation of inflammatory diseases. The effects of cordycepin in the modulation of macrophages have yet to be elucidated. We investigated the effects of cordycepin and adenosine on the morphological changes of macrophages under the inflammatory condition of LPS and an anti-inflammatory condition involving high concentrations of adenosine. METHODS: We confirmed the mRNA levels of the M1/M2 cytokine genes through RT-PCR and morphological change. RESULTS: LPS-activated macrophages returned to their inactivated original shape, i.e., they looked like naive macrophages, through the treatment with high concentrations of cordycepin (40 microgram/ml). LPS and adenosine activated macrophages also returned to their original inactivated shapes after cordycepin treatment; however, at relatively higher levels of cordycepin than adenosine. This change did not occur with relatively low concentrations of cordycepin. Adenosine down-regulated the gene expression of M1 cytokines (IL-1beta, TNF-alpha) and chemokines (CX3CR1, RANTES), as well as cordycepin. Additionally, M2 cytokines (IL-10, IL-1ra, TGF-beta) were up-regulated by both cordycepin and adenosine. CONCLUSION: Based on these observations, both cordycepin and adenosine regulated the phenotypic switch on macrophages and suggested that cordycepin and adenosine may potentially be used as immunomodulatory agents in the treatment of inflammatory disease.
Adenosine ; Atherosclerosis ; Chemokines ; Cordyceps ; Cytokines ; Deoxyadenosines ; Gene Expression ; Inflammation ; Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist Protein ; Macrophages ; Obesity ; RNA, Messenger