Plexins and semaphorins are a large family of proteins that are involved in cell movement and response. The importance of plexins and semaphorins has been emphasized by their discovery in many organ systems including the nervous (Nkyimbeng-Takwi and Chapoval, 2011; McCormick and Leipzig, 2012; Yaron and Sprinzak, 2012), epithelial (Miao et al., 1999; Fujii et al., 2002), and immune systems (Takamatsu and Kumanogoh, 2012) as well as diverse cell processes including angiogenesis (Serini et al., 2009; Sakurai et al., 2012), embryogenesis (Perala et al., 2012), and cancer (Potiron et al., 2009; Micucci et al., 2010). Plexins and semaphorins are transmembrane proteins that share a conserved extracellular semaphorin domain (Hota and Buck, 2012). The plexins and semaphorins are divided into four and eight subfamilies respectively based on their structural homology. Semaphorins are relatively small proteins containing the extracellular semaphorin domain and short intracellular tails. Plexins contain the semaphorin domain and long intracellular tails (Hota and Buck, 2012). The majority of plexin and semaphorin research has focused on the nervous system, particularly the developing nervous system, where these proteins are found to mediate many common neuronal cell processes including cell movement, cytoskeletal rearrangement, and signal transduction (Choi et al., 2008; Takamatsu et al., 2010). Their roles in the immune system are the focus of this review.
Animals ; Cell Adhesion Molecules ; immunology ; metabolism ; Humans ; Immunity ; Nerve Tissue Proteins ; immunology ; metabolism ; Semaphorins ; immunology ; metabolism

Aims: A study on biosorption ability using encapsulated endophytic fungi has been carried out to investigate its biosorption potential in removing heavy metals. Biosorption has emerged as an alternative bioremediation process to remove and sequester heavy metal ions from polluted water. An endophytic Pestalotiopsis sp. (isolated from Nypa fruticans) was found to be able to resist copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) up to 1,000 ppm and thus the aim of this study was to investigate the biosorption ability using encapsulated live and dead Pestalotiopsis sp. biomass (at pH 4-6) to remove heavy metals. Additionally, a proteomic study was conducted to investigate down- and up-regulation expression levels of proteins under the treatment of the heavy metals. Methodology and results: Encapsulated live fungal biomass displayed higher efficiency in removing chromium at pH 5 and 6, while both encapsulated live and dead biomass were able to remove lead at pH 4 and 5 and copper at pH 5. Five (5) proteins of interest were identified via MALDI-ToF analysis. Among the proteins identified, multidrug resistance protein (MRP homolog) was up-regulated in the presence of lead. Conclusion, significance and impact of study The data obtained in this study provides an initial understanding of the biosorptive and defensive mechanisms of Pestalotiopsis sp. under heavy metal stress.

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