Background: Carvedilol is a beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist primarily metabolized by cytochromes P450 (CYP) 2D6. This study established a carvedilol population pharmacokinetic (PK)–pharmacodynamic (PD) model to describe the effects of CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms on the inter-individual variability of PK and PD. Methods: The PK–PD model was developed from a clinical study conducted on 21 healthy subjects divided into three CYP2D6 phenotype groups, with six subjects in the extensive metabolizer (EM, *1/*1, *1/*2), seven in the intermediate metabolizer-1 (IM-1, *1/*10, *2/*10), and eight in the intermediate metabolizer-2 (IM-2, *10/*10) groups. The PK–PD model was sequentially developed, and the isoproterenol-induced heart rate changes were used to establish the PD model. A direct effect response and inhibitory E max model were used to develop a carvedilol PK–PD model. Results: The carvedilol PK was well described by a two-compartment model with zeroorder absorption, lag time, and first-order elimination. The carvedilol clearance in the CYP2D6*10/*10 group decreased by 32.8% compared with the other groups. The inhibitory concentration of carvedilol estimated from the final PK–PD model was 16.5 ng/mL regardless of the CYP2D6 phenotype. Conclusion The PK–PD model revealed that the CYP2D6 genetic polymorphisms were contributed to the inter-individual variability of carvedilol PK, but not PD.

Alpha-lipoic acid, a physiological form of thioctic acid, is a strong antioxidant that relieves diabetic neuropathic symptoms. R(+)-α-lipoic acid shows superior antioxidative effects to its racemate. We compared the pharmacokinetics (PKs) and tolerability of R(+)- and S(-)-α-lipoic acid after a single oral dose of R(+)-α-lipoic acid, Dexid®, and its racemate, thioctic acid in healthy male subjects. We used an open-label, randomized, single-dose, three-treatment, parallel study design to compare the PK exposure of the active form, R(+)-α-lipoic acid. Thirty subjects completed the study with no clinically relevant safety issues. The peak concentrations (C(max), mean±SD) of R(+)-α-lipoic acid after doses of R(+)-α-lipoic acid 200 mg, 300 mg and thioctic acid 600 mg were 4186.8±1956.7, 6985.6±3775.8 and 6498.4±3575.6 µg/L, respectively, and the areas under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to the last measurable concentration (AUC(last)) were 1893.6±759.4, 3575.2±1149.2 and 3790.0±1623.0 µg·h⁻¹·L⁻¹, respectively. The geometric mean ratio and 90% confidence intervals of R(+)-α-lipoic acid 200 mg to thioctic acid 600 mg for the C(max) and AUC(last) were 0.71 (0.43–1.15) and 0.51 (0.37–0.70), respectively. The corresponding R(+)-α-lipoic acid 300 mg to thioctic acid 600 mg values were 1.11 (0.68-1.80) and 0.97 (0.71-1.34), respectively. In conclusion, R(+)-α-lipoic acid 300 mg showed PK characteristics similar to those of thioctic acid 600 mg and both formulations were well tolerated.
Humans ; Male* ; Pharmacokinetics ; Plasma ; Thioctic Acid*