No abstract available.
Diphtheria/*history ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Human

The correlation of medicine and evolutionism was negligent in history of science. This article analyzes the correlation of medicine and evolutionism in Metchinikov's medical thought. Metchinikov was concerned about the correlation of medicine and evolutionism. In the late nineteenth century when Metchinikov was engaged in his work, the evolutionism grew up with physico-chemical biology and ecology after The Origin of Species by Darwin. At that time, the evolutionism was pitted against the neo-darwinism and the neo-lamarckism. Metchinikov agreed with the neo-lamarckism because their biological methodology was non-discriminatory. The point of his problem was on the inflammation theory. Metchinikov accepted the theory of a struggle for existence by Darwin, but blamed the theory of a struggle in species. After all, he accepted the theory of a struggle in individual life by neo-lamarckism.
English Abstract ; *Evolution ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Science/*history

No abstract available.
Books/*history ; Great Britain ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Neurophysiology/*history

"Sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" came into the world four hundred years ago when Traditonal Chinese Medicine(TCM) contacted Western Medicine(WM) at the begining of 17th century. It collected historical experiences showing that the cooperation of TCM and WM is more efficient for the cure and prevention of disease than each of them separately. Now the recognition that the cooperation of eastern and western medicine is more efficient to cure disease is spreading widely. This study will help Korean eastern and western medicine to find their directions. First, the concept of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" which was established between the beginning of 17th century and the middle of 20th century, and Integration of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine(ITCWM) which was formed after the middle of 20th century will be discussed. The relationship of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM and political consideration for the establishment of ITCWM will also be discussed. Finally, the current status of ITCWM in China will be discussed. New trends of thought appeared in Chinese medicine, owing to the cultural background of modern China, the development of WM, and the academic backgound of the intellectual class. "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM are different in historical and social background. However, purpose, foundation of thoughts and logical idea are fundamentally same. It can be said that "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" provided academic mood to open the way for ITCWM and ITCWM is a succession of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine". The concept of ITCWM has many ways of explanation. However, it can be said to build up the foundation of new medical area including Chinese special way of medical treatment and new methods of modern medicine, succeeding a legacy of TCM. ITCWM began before the establishment of People's Republic of China. Mao Ze-dong(1893-1976), a powerful politician, and Li Ding-ming(1881-1947) who had many experiences and insight for TCM and WM played important roles at this stage. The period from the New China to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution(1966-1975) is the term for the establishment of the shape of ITCWM. "The effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" was adapted as one of hygienic policies for curing of epidemic disease and succession and development of the heritage of TCM to establish new medical area. TCM class for western medical doctors was opened and mass media was used to spread out ITCWM throughout China. During the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, ITCWM has to be stepped back and stagnant. Only the TCM class of western medical doctors and some clinical applications were barely keep moving on and alive. From the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to the end of 1980's, there are the movement of re-preparation of ITCWM, education of successors, and the establishment of the Institute of ITCWM. Hospitals began to establish department of ITCWM. Furthermore, it was clearly indicated in the constitutional law that "we not only have to develop modern medicine but also traditional medicine". The equality of TCM and WM was legally established in this time. From the 1990's, "equality of TCM and WM" was adapted as one of the hygienic policies, and department of ITCWM was opened in traditional chinese medical school and western medical school. ITCWM has been settled down as a new academic field through education, training, research, academic activity, and publishing text books. In conclusion, the motive of the development of ITCWM was the policy such as "the effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" and "equality of TCM and WM" aimed at the development of Chinese medical area. It is no doubted helpful to organize systems and policy-making for the cooperation of eastern and western medicine in Korea.
China ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Medicine, Traditional/*history ; Philosophy/*history ; Western World/*history

Since its introduction to Korea from Japan at the beginning of the seventeenth century, tobacco became very popular with an amazing rapidity among Koreans. Along with widespread cultivation of tobacco, smoking also became very popular among Koreans, regardless of their classes, ages, and sexes. On the other hand, other imported crops from America via Europe in the sam period, like sweet potato, potato, corn and tomato, did not enjoy such popularity in Korea. A long time after their introduction, Koreans began to cultivate these crops. Why did Koreans respond enthusiastically to the newly-imported tobacco? What kind of factors contributed to the rapid transmission of tobacco in Korea? This study examined the causes of rapid diffusion of the smoking population in three aspects. First was economic aspect. The farming of tobacco yielded a profit by selling it to Chinese. The climate and the soil of Korea fit for farming of tobacco. So the farm land of tobacco expanded gradually since the 18th century. Second was medical aspect. At first, many Koreans believed that smoking was helpful to digestion, expectoration, protecting coldness, and exterminating parasites. Afterwards, they believed smoking could encourage vitality and protect diseases. There was no reason of smoking cessation for the people's health in that the hazards of smoking were not well known to the commonage in those days, though a few intellectuals acknowledge its harm. Third was sociocultural aspect. We could trace the smoking culture of Chosun dynasty through arts, poems, and essays. The making of smoking culture made stable reproduction of smokers generation by generation. Especially, the smoking culture secured juvenile's smoking. Considering the three aspects above, we know that what reason the Decree of Ban of Smoking in Korea was not strict in comparison to that of China (Qing Dynasty), in which the violators were executed. The regulation of smoking by the government failed except controlling in sociocultural aspect. The government reinforced controlling of smoking culture in counteraction to the threat of collapse of the hierarchy of Chosun dynasty in 18th century.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Korea ; Smoking/*history ; *Tobacco

In this paper, the philosophy and the content of medicinal philosophy of Lee Jae-Ma were illuminated through the history and philosophy of the late Choseon times from 1837 to 1900. Some conclusions were as follows: 1. Lee Jae-Ma was a philosopher as well as a doctor, and his philosophical background was well appeared in the book of . 2. Although the philosophy of Lee Jae-Ma and its terms were derived from the Kyunghakseol of Confucianism, the concept of these terms was different from the Neo-confucianism of Song Dynasty in China. 3. The four phases of the philosophy of Lee Jae-Ma was originated from the four important trigrams, however, he did not take the meanings of the changes and development of the trigrams in , but also took the four components of construction of cosmos similar to the Western theory of four component. 4. It is unreasonable that he is categorized in the group of the scholars of anti-Chu-tzu and neo-confucianist since the theory of the four phases was originated from the Kyunghakseol of Confucianism and also neo-Confucianism. 5. Dong Mu took the dualistic theory of mind and body in Ho Chun's as the core of his thought, but Dong Mu's method of the explanation was not based on the Taoism, the key of the thought of , but based on the Kyunghakseol of Confucianism. 6. Dong Mu wrote the two medicinal books and based on the thought of regimen of . But the philosophy of his books was based on the thought of Confucianism, not on of the nature of Taoism.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Korea ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

Choe Han-Ki was a philosopher of the 19th century who resided in Seoul. He accumulated vast amount of knowledge of Western science and on the basis of them he built his own philosophical system different from those of the philosophers before him. Not only has he wrote books on philosophy, but many books on science as well. Among them Shin-Ki-Chon-Hum is a very unique medical book which reveals his original medical philosophy. He acquired medical knowledge through the medical books put into Chinese by missionary doctor Hobson and on the basis of them he criticized traditional medicine. He criticized traditional medicine because it explained vital phenomenon through the reductionist theory, such as Oh-Haeng(theory of five phases). And he also criticized it because it lacked in exact anatomical knowledge and that the exact origin of the disease was not known and it had limitations on treatment. He also criticized Western Medicine because it supposed God as a creator. He saw the possibility of communication between Western Medicine and traditional medicine. He didn't regard medicine as concerning disease and health only, but it included everything in it. His philosophy of medicine is just a part of his original system of science, Ki-Hak.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Korea ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

Japan extended her territory since the end of 19th century, Sahalin island northward, Ryukyu islands southward. Japan annexed Chosen in 1910. The task of Japanase ethnology was how to describe and define the people of many races in Japanese territory. On the other hand Japanese ethnology was a confrontation of Japanese about the sense of superiority of the West. Japanese ethnology was the background of exploitation and discrimination of other Asian countries and their people. In that sense Japan imitated Western countries in an age of imperialism. Japanese ethnologist adopted two theories; one was an anthropology and another was the theory of evolution. They classified races into two categories, evoluted one and primitive one. Japanese government intended to utilize Asian people in respond to the advantages and disadvantages of each race. Kubo, Koganei, Kyono, and Hasebe were those who studied Chosen people. Kubo, a professor of department of Anatomy of Kyungsung Junior Medical College, was the most productive one in anthropology of Chosen people. He describes Chosen people as a primitive one. His prejudice about Chosen people was very closely related with so called "Kubo abusive words case". It was a symbolic happening rather than a personal defect in the perspective of the idea of Japanese ethnology about Chosen people.
Ethnology/*history ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea

As early as the reign of King Taejo, the Chosen Dynasty started medical education in Pyongyang by establishing a medical school under "uikwa" which was an independent governmental organization of the 10 bu. Toward the end of the Dynasty, a local medical organization called "uihakwon", which was independent of the "Hyeminso" and comparatively large as a local medical organization, was established in Pyongyang under the control of "Pusa" and "Chick chang". This educational organization was staffed by one professor and had an enrollment of 16 students. Around 1894, when the Sino-Japanese War broke outs American missionaries, medical and non-medical, chose Pyongyang as the base of their missionary activities and started medical and educational work William James Hall, of the Northern Methodist Church, started medical work sometime later, Rossetta S. Hall, who accompanied her husband to Pyongyang opened a hospital for women. In the meantime, J. Hunter Wells, of the Northern Presbyterian Church, inaugurated the "Chejungwon" and launched medical service in Pyongyang. These medical activities naturally needed trained medical assistants and missionary doctors came to embrace an idea of educating regular medical doctors in Korea where there were no Korean medical doctors. This occasioned Dr. Hall and Dr. Wells to launch medical education. Their medical education which began in 1897-1899 was a pioneer work for Western medical education in Pyongyang. In 1905, Japan established the Japanese "Uisagwan" in Pyongyang and commissioned Nakamura Tomizo in charge of the organization and the medical care of Japanese residents. Nakamura opened a hospital in Pyongyang and while practicing on the one hand, conducted medical education for Korean students. At that time, he was recommended to become a member of the Tonginhae and started the Tongin Uiwon(hospital) and its attached medical school. He recruited students from private schools and provided Western medical education to them. This organization for medical education was the first medical school established by Japanese in Pyongyang. The Tongin Uiwon was sold to the Korean government in 1910 and regionalized under the name of Chahye Uiwon. This medical organization was disbanded in 1911 according to the policy for unified medical education of the Government-General in Korea which began with the annexation. The Pyongang area, due to its peculiar situation(the Japanese authorities regarded this area as one of people with strong anti-Japanese sentiment), lagged behind other areas in the benefit of all cultural facilities including medical organizations. Under the circumstances, in spite of a strong and longstanding insistence that there be established a medical school in Pyongyang the demand had not been met until 1923 when the Pyongyang Medical Training Institute was inaugurated by the Japanese. This institute was later reorganized into the Pyongyang Medical College which was operated entirely by Japanese professors until 1945 when North Korea was occupied by the Soviet Army. As aforementioned, the Pyongyang Medical College was staffed entirely Japanese professors. There were no Korean professor or no department chiefs of "political purpose". It is presumed that the graduates and under-graduates of the Pyongyang Medical College at that time were the most recalcitrant to the educational policy of Japanization. There were many graduates of this college who sought positions of academic researches elsewhere and made strenuous efforts to excel their Japanese competitors in social and academic aspects. with the results that as many as 24 of them won a degree of doctor of medical science with outstanding academic achievements. Such efforts of them resulted, after the liberation of our country, in the remarkable activities in the medical circle, both domestic and abroad, which were equal to those done by graduates of medical college, with much a longer history.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea

On the record 1995 is the 100th anniversary of Western medical education in our country which began with the opening of the Vaccinators' Training Center, but the actual history of Korea's Western medical education is 97 years old. To become vaccinators the students underwent training for a month including the manufacturing of vaccine and the practicing of vaccination. These vaccinators were the first vaccination specialists trained in Western medicine in our country. Their service included vaccination as well as education. These professionals of Western medicine. in spite of a short period of their training, saved countless human lives, contributing greatly to the welfare of society. In the years 1897-1898, there were quite a number of foreign missionary medical doctors in Korea, who were providing Western medical education each according to their own need. Some of the examples were Wells and Follwell in Pyongyang, Johnson in Taegu, and Scranton, Avison, and Rosetta Hall in Seoul. They were all medical doctors who received regular medical education and were engaged in clinical medicine. Meanwhile, Japanese medical doctors, who were educated in Western medicine, were operating hospitals in Pusan, Wonsan, Inchun, and Seoul. They did not provide medical education, but they employed Koreans as their assistants. Under such circumstances. the Chosun Government-General belatedly inaugurated the Uihakkyo Medical School. This medical school had a three-year course of Western medicine, but there was only two instructor trained in Western medicine and the remaining teaching members were all doctors of Oriental medicine. By regulations the curriculum included such subjects of Western medicine as zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, diagnosis, internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, etc. The fact that to teach these subjects, non-medical persons were nominated as professors simple because they were equipped with knowledge of medicine, law and medicaments, makes it easy for us to imagine what the contents of the lectures would have been. After 1905, the Western medical education in Korea was severely interfered in by the Japanese authorities, and the name of the medical school was changed several times -Taehan Hospital Educational Department, Medical Educational Department, Attached Medical School, etc. The entire faculty of this medical school consisted of Japanese. Accordingly, the control over Government medical education in Korea was placed in the power of the Japanese authorities. To learn Western medicine Korean students had to endure humiliation and disdain from Japanese professors who took pleasure in showing off their talent and knowledge and satisfying their sense of superiority. After 1910 when Korea was annexed to Japan, Koreans had to receive Japanese education unconditionally. The government Uihakkyo Medical School was transformed into the status of a medical training center and was attached to the Medical Educational Section of the Government-General Hospital, barely retaining the name of a medical school. Korean students received medical education submissively suffering the haughtiness, disdain and prejudice from Japanese professors and follow students. Even after their graduation, Korean students had to meet the same situation. Thus, some academically eager graduates, for the purpose of furthering their study and research under liberal circumstances, went to Germany, which at that time was known for its most advanced medical sciences in the world. However, since the Japanese authorities including the professors did not make much of the Koreans studying in Germany, some of the graduates who were eager for further study had to continue their study under the Japanese professors. Thus the achievements of the Korean medical pioneers were the product of their sacrificial efforts and hardships. In this connection the author has described the achievements of the Korean professors, though small in number (5 professors, 6 assistant professors, and 10 instructors), who did their study and research at their alma mater. Also given in this article are data on the dissertations by 104 of our medical pathfinders, including the titles, the dates when degrees were awarded and the names of colleges where their dissertations were defended etc.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Western World