The views on the life in the early modern period(the 17th and 18th centuries) with their socio-cultural backgrounds and their meanings at that time were discussed in this paper. Those views discussed here were the dualistic, mechanistic one of Rene Descartes(1596-1650), the animistic, vitalistic one of Georg Ernst Stahl(1660-1734), and the monistic, mechanistic one of Julien Offray de La Mettrie(1709-1751). Author stressed that the processes of their view formation were influenced by the wide range of the various political and religious factors as well as the scientific, medical facts and opinions at that time, and that not only the contents of the views but also their historical contexts should be pursed in the study on the medical thoughts.
English Abstract ; Europe ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Vitalism/*history

"Sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" came into the world four hundred years ago when Traditonal Chinese Medicine(TCM) contacted Western Medicine(WM) at the begining of 17th century. It collected historical experiences showing that the cooperation of TCM and WM is more efficient for the cure and prevention of disease than each of them separately. Now the recognition that the cooperation of eastern and western medicine is more efficient to cure disease is spreading widely. This study will help Korean eastern and western medicine to find their directions. First, the concept of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" which was established between the beginning of 17th century and the middle of 20th century, and Integration of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine(ITCWM) which was formed after the middle of 20th century will be discussed. The relationship of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM and political consideration for the establishment of ITCWM will also be discussed. Finally, the current status of ITCWM in China will be discussed. New trends of thought appeared in Chinese medicine, owing to the cultural background of modern China, the development of WM, and the academic backgound of the intellectual class. "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" and ITCWM are different in historical and social background. However, purpose, foundation of thoughts and logical idea are fundamentally same. It can be said that "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine" provided academic mood to open the way for ITCWM and ITCWM is a succession of "sect of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine". The concept of ITCWM has many ways of explanation. However, it can be said to build up the foundation of new medical area including Chinese special way of medical treatment and new methods of modern medicine, succeeding a legacy of TCM. ITCWM began before the establishment of People's Republic of China. Mao Ze-dong(1893-1976), a powerful politician, and Li Ding-ming(1881-1947) who had many experiences and insight for TCM and WM played important roles at this stage. The period from the New China to the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution(1966-1975) is the term for the establishment of the shape of ITCWM. "The effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" was adapted as one of hygienic policies for curing of epidemic disease and succession and development of the heritage of TCM to establish new medical area. TCM class for western medical doctors was opened and mass media was used to spread out ITCWM throughout China. During the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, ITCWM has to be stepped back and stagnant. Only the TCM class of western medical doctors and some clinical applications were barely keep moving on and alive. From the period of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to the end of 1980's, there are the movement of re-preparation of ITCWM, education of successors, and the establishment of the Institute of ITCWM. Hospitals began to establish department of ITCWM. Furthermore, it was clearly indicated in the constitutional law that "we not only have to develop modern medicine but also traditional medicine". The equality of TCM and WM was legally established in this time. From the 1990's, "equality of TCM and WM" was adapted as one of the hygienic policies, and department of ITCWM was opened in traditional chinese medical school and western medical school. ITCWM has been settled down as a new academic field through education, training, research, academic activity, and publishing text books. In conclusion, the motive of the development of ITCWM was the policy such as "the effort of research and development on TCM-WM integration" and "equality of TCM and WM" aimed at the development of Chinese medical area. It is no doubted helpful to organize systems and policy-making for the cooperation of eastern and western medicine in Korea.
China ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Medicine, Traditional/*history ; Philosophy/*history ; Western World/*history

Since its introduction to Korea from Japan at the beginning of the seventeenth century, tobacco became very popular with an amazing rapidity among Koreans. Along with widespread cultivation of tobacco, smoking also became very popular among Koreans, regardless of their classes, ages, and sexes. On the other hand, other imported crops from America via Europe in the sam period, like sweet potato, potato, corn and tomato, did not enjoy such popularity in Korea. A long time after their introduction, Koreans began to cultivate these crops. Why did Koreans respond enthusiastically to the newly-imported tobacco? What kind of factors contributed to the rapid transmission of tobacco in Korea? This study examined the causes of rapid diffusion of the smoking population in three aspects. First was economic aspect. The farming of tobacco yielded a profit by selling it to Chinese. The climate and the soil of Korea fit for farming of tobacco. So the farm land of tobacco expanded gradually since the 18th century. Second was medical aspect. At first, many Koreans believed that smoking was helpful to digestion, expectoration, protecting coldness, and exterminating parasites. Afterwards, they believed smoking could encourage vitality and protect diseases. There was no reason of smoking cessation for the people's health in that the hazards of smoking were not well known to the commonage in those days, though a few intellectuals acknowledge its harm. Third was sociocultural aspect. We could trace the smoking culture of Chosun dynasty through arts, poems, and essays. The making of smoking culture made stable reproduction of smokers generation by generation. Especially, the smoking culture secured juvenile's smoking. Considering the three aspects above, we know that what reason the Decree of Ban of Smoking in Korea was not strict in comparison to that of China (Qing Dynasty), in which the violators were executed. The regulation of smoking by the government failed except controlling in sociocultural aspect. The government reinforced controlling of smoking culture in counteraction to the threat of collapse of the hierarchy of Chosun dynasty in 18th century.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Korea ; Smoking/*history ; *Tobacco

As is widely recognized, Heo Jun was a man who under King Seonjo (1568-1608) performed his duty as a royal physician very successfully and also left a truly monumental work (Dongeuibogam), An Encyclopedia of Oriental Medicine. In spite of such a great accomplishment as a royal physician and as a compiler, Heo Jun was not accepted or treated properly by the people in the government as well as in the society He was particularly discriminated against by his lineage members as is well shown in the genealogy compiled by his clan in 1911.
*Encyclopedias ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 16th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; Korea ; Physicians/*history ; *Public Opinion

Our country had quite an advanced system of medical education during the era of the Koryo Kingdom, and during the Choson Dynasty, the Kyong Guk Dae Jon, in Which a systematized medical education was clearly described, was compiled in the era of King Sejong. However, the educational system was not for Western medicine. Western medicine was first introduced to our country in the 9th year of King Injo(1631) when Chong Du Won, Yi Yong Jun, etc., returned from Yon Gyong(Beiuin) with Chik Bang Oe Gi. Knowledge of Western medicine was disseminated by Shil Hak(practical learning) scholars who read a translation in Chinese characters, of Chik Bang Oe Gi. Yi Ik(Song Ho), Yi Gyu Gyong(O ju), Choe Han Gi(Hye Gang), Chong Yak Yong(Ta San), etc., read books of Western medicine and introduced in writing the excellent theory of Western medicine. In addition, Yu Hyong Won(Pan Gye), Pak Ji Won(Yon Am), Pak Je Ga(Cho Jong). etc., showed much interest in Western medicine, but no writings by them about western medicine can be found. With the establishment of a treaty of amity with Japan in the 13th year of King Kojong(1876), followed by the succession of amity treaties with Western powers, foreigners including medical doctors were permitted to flow into this country. At that time, doctors Horace N. Allen, W.B. Scranton, John W. Heron, Rosetta Sherwood(Rosetta S. Hall), etc. came to Korea and inaugurated hospitals, where they taught Western medicine to Korean students. Dr. Horace N. Allen, with the permission of king Kojong, established Che Jung Won in April 1885, and in March 1886, he began at the hospital to provide education of Western medicine to Korean students who were recruited by the Korean Government. However, the education was not conducted on a regular basis, only training them for work as assistants. This is considered to be the pioneer case of Western medical education in this country. Before that time, Japanese medical doctors came to Korea, but there are no records showing they conducted medical education. There is a document showing that Chi Sok Yong, who not a medical doctor, accompanied a diplomatic mission to Japan in 1880, and returned with the technique of vaccination. As a Korean, he was the first to learn and introduce western medicine to this country.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; Europe ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; United States

Japan received the Western medicine through Portuguese, Spanish and Netherlanders. Especially Netherlanders established House of Trade in Nagasaki. Doctors from their homeland stayed there for several years for the health care of their tradesmen, and taught Japanese Western medicine (mainly surgery). By them Anatomy books written in western languages were introduced into Japan and some Japanese had the eager to identify the real structures of human body. At last Yamawaki Toyo became the first dissector of human body in Japan(1754) and he made his own dissection records. In 1774 Sukita Kenpaku translated the Anatomy book of Kulmus into the classic Chinese. From that time on Japanese translated a lot of Anatomy books in western languages and they themselves wrote Anatomy books of their own.
Anatomy/*history ; Dissection/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Japan ; Publishing/*history ; Translations ; Western World

The object of this study is to investigate the routes of the introduction of the western psychiatric knowledges and practices in Korea. The historical documents including newspapers and governmental bullettins as well as articles and books on the history of the Korean medicine were examined and the results are as follows: The western knowledge about the brain anatomy and physiology was introduced from China by the enlightened Confucian and Taoistic scholars of Korea in the mid seventeenth century through the Chinese translations of the western science and medicine. Due to the lack of support for the scholars and even persecution by the ruling power to those who had great interests in the western thoughts including sciences, the western medical knowledges could not be actualized in practice. Thus, the active practices of western medicine were started in the late 19th century in Korea through the two routes ; one, via Japanese military physicians and the other one, via the western missionary physicians. The psychiatry was lectured by Japanese psychiatrist in 1910 at the medical school of Tai-Han Ui-won, the Korean governmental clinic and in 1913 at the Severance medical school by the Australian psychiatrist, McLaren. As the independent department with the psychiatric ward, the first Dept. of Psychiatry was established in 1913 at the colonial governmental clinic, Chosun Chondokbu-Uiwon, the former Tai-Han Ui-won. Medicine as well as psychiatry was introduced into Korea under the political atmosphere of onesided admiration for the western science. The attempts to combine the western medicine with the traditional Korean medicine could not be tolerated by both missionary physicians and the colonial regime.
Colonialism/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Missions and Missionaries/*history ; Psychiatry/*history ; Western World/*history

In this paper, authors discussed the classification of swelling (Chong), swelling-treatment methods (Chi-Chong) in Choson period, traditional notions about the natural history, treatment principles, popular healing methods of swelling, and depicted specially designed acupuncture instruments applied to it. Among the six professional guide books at that time, A Secret Recipe of Swelling Treatment (16th century) introduced the invasive surgical method into the narrow disease category i.e. carbuncle and furuncle, cellulitis, erysipelae, and gravitation abscess. The writer named these diseases as 'fire, stone, water, hemp, silk carbuncle', following each specific characteristics. Another surgical book, Orientation to Swelling Treatment (16th century) extended the surgical method to 'non-external' but 'looks-like swelling' diseases, such as pleurisy, tympanitis, testicular swelling, sequestrum of osteomyelitis. It is natural that some researchers doubted whether the book was used in real practice. However, the content of the book is too detailed to be regarded as an imaginary product. From these books and other materials, we found that the traditional notion of swelling was closely related with the notions of 'knotted' or 'pent in'. So 'pent-up rancor' or grudge was thought to aggravate any kind of swelling, and was tabooed or contraindicated in swelling treatment. 'Knotting in mind' was regarded as one of the principal etiologies of 'swelling and abscess formation in the body'. 'Fire in mind' was also regarded as one of the causes of phlegm aggregation resulting in swelling.
Abscess/*history ; Disease ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 16th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, Early Modern ; Human ; Korea ; Surgery/*history

Michel Foucault has brought some considerable changes in our way of seeing human body. He argued that the body is not merely a natural object, but a medium of numerous social messages and even the most favorable habitat of power. According to him, the birth of social institutions, such as asylum, clinic, jail, have been closely linked to the process of modernization and further the very process through which the body becomes an object of social control has been an important part of our modernization. He proposed a new concept, viz., the social stigma carved on body and provided us certain clues that makes us think newly of the boundary between nature and culture. Although his arguments opened a new perspective on our body, it did have a premise of so-called "the passivity of body" as its limitation. The body is not just a purely natural object, nor a purely social construction. It resides at both sides simultaneously and the disease, an incident happened within the body, reveals subtle relationship between these two. Those who see the body as an object of power as such or a medium of certain social messages tend to consider it only as an objective being, yet on the other side of this standpoint, the Cartesian dualism is hidden as a premise. Deleuze defined, in his book on Spinoza, the ethics of Spinoza as a practical study mainly dealing with the mode of existence. Provided that this definition is correct enough, we may term this practical study for the mode of existence of the body as the ethics of the body. Spinoza proposed a very unique view with regard to the body, which differs from that of the Cartesian Dualism. It is based on the entire system of his philosophy, viz., the system of the univocity of substance and the immanence of being which finally appears in the form of ethics. In the later half of this article, a very unique medicine whose starting point is none other than this kind of ethics, a practical study for the mode of existence, was dealt with. It is named Sasang(Four Symbol) medicine which was founded upon the long tradition of one of the most profound ethical teachings of mankind, Confucianism. Sasang medicine of Yi Jae-ma is in a sense a continuation of the Neo-Confucianism tradition of Korea in the field of medicine.
Asia ; English Abstract ; Ethics/*history ; Europe ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, Modern ; *Human Body ; Korea ; Philosophy/*history

The seasonal febrile diseases had been studied before Qing dynasty, but it was accomplished in Qing dynasty because of high incidence of the epidemics in those days. I studied and analyzed epidemics in Zai Yi Zhi of Qing Shi Gao on the reasons and patterns as yearly, regional, and seasonal parameters. Based on these analyses, I want to report how the doctrine of seasonal febrile diseases could be established in Qing dynasty. The incidence of epidemics was very high during the regimes of Kang Xi(1662~1722), Yong Zheng(1723~1735), and Qian Long(1736~1795) Emperors, the most advanced period in Qing dynasty. The diseases occurred at least once per two years, although, somtimes twice or 5 times per a year. Once it was developed and then smashed through the whole China, especially in Jiang Nan. It was the main reason why the four greatest scholars in the doctrine of seasonal febrile diseases came out from Jiang Nan. These diseases appeared most highly and worst in summer as pestilence. These resulted in the development of the studies of epidemics in those days. Based on the clinical studies of fever-related diseases, the scholars of seasonal febrile diseases tried to cure them with endless and continuous efforts. Finally, they could complete the doctrine of seasonal febrile diseases in Qing dynasty.
China ; Disease Outbreaks/*history ; English Abstract ; Fever/*history ; History of Medicine, 17th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 18th Cent. ; Human ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; *Seasons