OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to introduce the concept of health inequalities, and to discuss the underlying assumptions and ethical backgrounds associated with the issue, as well as the theoretical and practical implications of health inequalities. METHODS: Based on a review of the literature, we summarize the concepts of health inequalities and inequities and discuss the underlying assumptions and ethical backgrounds associated with these issues from the view of social justice theory. We then discuss the theoretical and practical implications of health inequalities. RESULTS: Health inequality involves ethical considerations, such as judgments on fairness, and it could provide a sensitive barometer to reflect the fairness of social arrangements. Discussion on health inequalities could deepen our understanding of the social etiology of health and provide a basis for the development of comprehensive and integrative social policies. CONCLUSIONS: Health equity is not a social goal in and of itself, but should be considered as a part of a broader effort to seek social justice.
*Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea ; Public Health/*ethics ; *Social Justice

No abstract available.
Female ; *Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Male ; Obesity/*epidemiology

OBJECTIVES: Socioeconomic position (SEP) refers to the socioeconomic factors that influence which position an individual or group of people will hold within the structure of a society. In this study, we provide a comprehensive review of various indicators of SEP, including education level, occupation-based SEP, income and wealth, area SEP, lifecourse SEP, and SEP indicators for women, elderly and youth. METHODS AND RESULTS: This report provides a brief theoretical background and discusses the measurement, interpretation issues, advantages and limitations associated with the use of each SEP indicator. We also describe some problems that arise when selecting SEP indicators and highlight the indicators that appear to be appropriate for health inequality research. Some practical information for use in health inequality research in South Korea is also presented. CONCLUSIONS: Investigation into the associations between various SEP indicators and health outcomes can provide a more complete understanding of mechanisms between SEP and health. The relationship between specific SEP indicators and specific health outcomes can vary by country due to the differences in the historical, socioeconomic, and cultural contexts of the SEP indicators.
*Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea ; *Research ; *Social Class

OBJECTIVES: The validity of instruments measuring socioeconomic position (SEP) has been a major area of concern in research on cardiovascular health disparities. The purpose of this systematic review is to identify the current status of the methods used to measure SEP in research on cardiovascular health disparities in Korea and to provide directions for future research. METHODS: Relevant articles were obtained through electronic database searches with manual searches of reference lists and no restriction on the date of publication. SEP indicators were categorized into compositional, contextual, composite, and life-course measures. RESULTS: Forty-eight studies published from 2003 to 2018 satisfied the review criteria. Studies utilizing compositional measures mainly relied on a limited number of SEP parameters. In addition, these measures hardly addressed the time-varying and subjective features of SEP. Finding valid contextual measures at the organizational, community, and societal levels that are appropriate to Korea’s context remains a challenge, and these are rarely modeled simultaneously. Studies have rarely focused on composite and life-course measures. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies should develop and utilize valid compositional and contextual measures and appraise social patterns that vary across time, place, and culture using such measures. Studies should also consider multilevel influences, adding a focus on the interactions between different levels of intertwined SEP factors to advance the design of research. More attention should be given to composite and life-course measures.
Cardiovascular Diseases ; Health Status Disparities ; Korea ; Publications ; Socioeconomic Factors

In order to reduce the health inequalities within a society changes need to be made in broad health determinants and their distribution in the population. It has been expected that the Health impact assessment(HIA) and Healthy Cities can provide opportunities and useful means for changing social policy and environment related with the broad health determinants in developed countries. HIA is any combination of procedures or methods by which a proposed 4P(policy, plan, program, project) may be judged as to the effects it may have on the health of a population. Healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving those physical and social environments and expanding those community resources which enable people to mutually support each other in performing all the functions of life and in developing to their maximum potential. In Korea, social and academic interest regarding the HIA and Healthy Cities has been growing recently but the need of HIA and Healthy Cities in the perspective of reducing health inequality was not introduced adequately. So we reviewed the basic concepts and methods of the HIA and Healthy Cities, and its possible contribution to reducing health inequalities. We concluded that though the concepts and methods of the HIA and Healthy Cities are relatively new and still in need of improvement, they will be useful in approaching the issue of health inequality in Korea.
Health Planning/*methods ; Health Services Accessibility ; *Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea ; *Urban Health ; Urban Population

Although the New National Health Promotion Plan 2010 target to reduce health inequalities, whether the program will be effective for reducing the health inequalities in Korea remains quite unclear. More and more developed countries have been started to concentrate on comprehensive policies for reducing health inequalities. The health policies of the UK, Netherlands, and Sweden are the most wellknown. I propose that a comprehensive blueprint for tackling health inequalities in Korea should be made and that it must contain five domains: a target, structure and process, life-course approach, area-based approach, and reorganization of health care resources. The target should be based on determinants of health and more attention should be paid to socioeconmic factors. The structure and process require changes from the national health care policy based on medical services to the national health policy that involves the establishment of a Social Deputy Prime Minister and the strengthening multidisciplinary action. A life-course approach especially focused on the early childhood years. Area-based approach such as the establishment of healthy communities, healthy schools, or healthy work-places which are focused on deprived areas or places is also required. Finally, health care resources should be a greater investment on public resources and strengthening primary care to reduce health inequalities. The policy or intervention studies for tackling health inequalities should be implemented much more in Korea. In addition, it is essential to have political will to encoruage policy action.
*Health Policy ; Health Promotion ; *Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea ; Policy Making ; Socioeconomic Factors

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to identify trends in health-related interventions on children attending Community Child Care (CCC) centers, which are part of a health policy to provide after-school care for vulnerable children in South Korea. METHODS: From 2007, 109 papers were analyzed using the scoping study method. RESULTS: The number of studies increased steadily between 2007 and 2016. Most studies were based on the social sciences, and the participants were mainly elementary school students. Psychological and social interventions were the most common types of interventions with socio-psychological indicators as measurements. In addition, only a few studies had a clearly defined conceptual framework. The majority of studies did not explicitly indicate that they followed ethical considerations. CONCLUSION: It is necessary to develop health-related interventions for children attending CCC centers using diverse subjects, types, and evaluation methods, along with improvements in the quality of research methodology. Furthermore, it is essential to clearly articulate and implement ethical considerations in research targeting vulnerable children.
Child Care* ; Child* ; Health Policy ; Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea* ; Methods ; Research Design ; Social Sciences

The role of physicians in reducing health inequity has been regarded only partial and anecdotal by most policymakers. Clinicians, primary care physicians in particular, do not have sufficient opportunities to be engaged in activities dealing with health equity. However, physicians are playing a key role in providing health care and health-related programs, usually interwoven with inequities in health and health care utilization. As a result, a more active role for physicians must be identified under the scheme of a comprehensive strategy in combating inequity in health. From the perspective of mediating factors linking social determinants of health and inequitable outcomes in health and health care, health behaviors, access, and processes of care are identified as potential areas for physicians' engagement. 'Health equity capacity' is emphasized as a cross-cutting tool to empower physicians to address inequity in their clinical practices. More broadly, practicing physicians are able to support their colleagues and communities through diverse activities and participation: technical assistance, research and education, community involvement, and advocacy. Among them, raising awareness and changing perceptions are indicated as crucial factors facilitating physicians' contribution to minimizing inequity.
Clinical Competence ; Delivery of Health Care ; Health Behavior ; Health Status Disparities ; Healthcare Disparities ; Humans ; Negotiating ; Physicians, Primary Care ; Professional Role ; Socioeconomic Factors

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to summarize the current conditions and implications of health inequalities in South Korea. METHODS: Through a literature review of empirical studies and supplementary analysis of the data presented in the 1998, 2001, and 2005 KNHANEs, we evaluated the extent and trends of socioeconomic inequalities in both health risk factors, such as smoking, physical activity, and obesity, and outcomes, such as total mortality, subjective poor health status by self-reports and metabolic syndrome. Relative risks and odds ratios were used to measure differences across socioeconomic groups, and the relative index of inequality was used to evaluate the changes in inequalities over time. RESULTS: We found clear inequalities to various degrees in most health indicators. While little change was observed in mortality differences over time, the socioeconomic gaps in risk factors and morbidity have been widening, with much larger differences among the younger population. CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic inequalities are pervasive across various health indicators, and some of them are increasing. The trends in socioeconomic inequalities in health should be carefully monitored, and comprehensive measures to alleviate health inequalities are needed, especially for young populations.
Adult ; Female ; *Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Korea ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Risk Factors ; Risk-Taking ; Social Class

OBJECTIVES: Despite various government initiatives, including the expansion of national health insurance coverage, health inequality has been a key health policy issue in South Korea during the past decade. This study describes and compares the extent of the total health inequality and the income-related health inequality over time among Korean adults. METHODS: This study employs the 1998, 2001 and 2005 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (KNHANESs). The self-assessed health (SAH) ordinal responses, measured on a five-point scale, rescaled to cardinal values to measure the health inequalities with using interval regression. The boundaries of each threshold for the interval regression analysis were obtained from the empirical distribution of the EuroQol-5 Dimension (EQ-5D) valuation weights estimated from the 2005 KNHANES. The final model predicting the individuals' health status included age, gender, educational attainment, occupation, income, and the regional prosperity index. The concentration index was used to measure and analyze the health inequality. RESULTS: The KNHANES data showed an unequal distribution of the total health inequality in favor of the higher income groups, and this is getting worse over time (0.0327 in 1998, 0.0393 in 2001 and 0.0924 in 2005). The income-related health inequality in 2005 was 0.0278, indicating that 30.1% of the total health inequality can be attributed to income. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate there are health inequalities across the sociodemographic and income groups despite the recent government's efforts. Further research is warranted to investigate what potential policy actions are necessary to decrease the health inequality in Korea.
Adult ; Aged ; Female ; *Health Status Disparities ; Humans ; Income ; Korea ; Male ; Middle Aged ; *Quality of Life ; Questionnaires