Selective bronchial intubation (SBI) to ventilate a single lung (one-lung ventilation, OLV) or to apply separate lung ventilation (independent-lung ventilation, ILV) can be frequently required under general anesthesia in pediatrics, mainly in video assisted thoracoscopy surgery, in the postoperative care of cardio-thoracic surgery, and for the treatment of lung pathologies with unilateral prevalence in intensive care. In children over 6-8 years of age SBI, OLV and ILV can be performed using marketed double-lumen tubes (DLTs). In neonates, infants and younger children the application of ILV is limited due to the lack of DLTs. For children of this age, a specific DLT for ILV was developed (Marraro Paediatric Endobronchial Bilumen Tube®) but is currently available only as a special product. The DLT represents the device of choice for OLV and ILV while the use of bronchial blocker is suggested as an alternative to achieve the SBI and the OLV when suitable DLTs are not available. Different catheters types can be used as bronchial blocker. If SBI is not possible using DLT or bronchial blocker, a conventional single-lumen tube of adequate length can allow SBI in all pediatric ages. Using the bronchial blocker and single lumen tube it is possible to perform OLV but it is impossible to apply ILV. The main complications of SBI and DLT are largely due to limited operator experience. Airway trauma, dislodgment and obstruction of the devices are quite frequent and can lead to severe hypoxia if not recognized and treated early.
Child ; Humans ; Infant ; Infant, Newborn ; Intubation, Intratracheal ; Lung ; One-Lung Ventilation ; Thoracic Surgical Procedures

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a heterogeneous syndrome that lacks definitive treatment. The cornerstone of management is sound intensive care treatment and early anticipatory ventilation support. A mechanical ventilation strategy aiming at optimal alveolar recruitment, judicious use of positive end-respiratory pressure (PEEP) and low tidal volumes (VT) remains the mainstay for managing this lung disease. Several treatments have been proposed in rescue settings, but confirmation is needed from large controlled clinical trials before they be recommended for routine care. Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is suggested with a cautious approach and a strict selection of candidates for treatment. Mild and moderate cases can be efficiently treated by NIV, but this is contra-indicated with severe ARDS. The extra-corporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2 R), used as an integrated tool with conventional ventilation, is playing a new role in adjusting respiratory acidosis and CO2. The proposed benefits of ECCO2 R over extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) consist in a reduction of artificial surface contact, avoidance of pump-related side effects and technical complications, as well as lower costs. The advantages and disadvantages of inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) are better recognized today and iNO is not recommended for ARDS and acute lung injury (ALI) in children and adults because iNO results in a transient improvement in oxygenation but does not reduce mortality, and may be harmful. Several trials have found no clinical benefit from various surfactant supplementation methods in adult patients with ARDS. However, studies which are still controversial have shown that surfactant supplementation can improve oxygenation and decrease mortality in pediatric and adolescent patients in specific conditions and, when applied in different modes and doses, also in neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) of preemies. Management of ARDS remains supportive, aimed at improving gas exchange and preventing complications. Progress in the treatment of ARDS must be addressed toward the new paradigm of the disease pathobiology to be applied to the disease definition and to predict the treatment outcome, also with the perspective to develop predictive and personalized medicine that highlights new and challenging opportunities in terms of benefit for patient's safety and doctor's responsibility, with further medico-legal implication.
Child ; Humans ; Nitric Oxide ; administration & dosage ; Noninvasive Ventilation ; Positive-Pressure Respiration ; Prone Position ; Pulmonary Atelectasis ; etiology ; Pulmonary Surfactants ; therapeutic use ; Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Adult ; therapy