ZHU Lian is a deceased famous acupuncture and Moxibustion specialist, the first director and the founder of institute of Acupuncture-Moxibustion of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences. This article discusses the thought and idea of education and teaching of acupuncture-moxibustion from the following three aspects: diversified education and training mode, teaching idea of new acupuncture-moxibustion with a lot of characteristics, and the founding of professional acupuncture-moxibustion college. All above have both distinct characteristics of the times and positively enlightening significance of reality.
Acupuncture ; education ; history ; Acupuncture Therapy ; history ; China ; Education, Medical ; history ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Teaching ; history

Paul D. Choy was born on February 26th. 1896. He spent his childhood in Japan and America, and he returned to Korea when he turned twenty one years old. He graduated from Severance Union Medical College in 1921. After graduating the college, he went to Peking Union Medical College to study parasitology. He came back to Korea after one year as the first parasitologist in Korea. On returning, he took the charge of the clinical laboratory of Severance Hospital. Before long he made another journey for study to Canada. He spent two years in Toronto University studying pathology. After studying pathology, he challenged a new field of medicine. It was medical jurisprudence. He stayed two years in Japan in order to earn his doctorate in medical jurisprudence in Tohoku Imperial College. This time he returned as the first specialist in medical jurisprudence in Korea. His field of study was not confined to medical field. He had deep interest in current situation in Manchuria and Mongol, and wrote a book on this matter. His interest also extended to the history of ancient Korean people. He made extensive studies on this subject, which resulted in publishing a huge work on the origin of Korean people and its ancient history. He was a true pioneer of medicine in Korea and his life was characterized by endless quest for learning.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History, 20th Century ; Travel/*history

This paper traces how Koreans of north area became medical doctors in colonial Korea. Most of the past research have focused only on the well-known medical doctors, or even when they discussed a great number of doctors, many research tended to only pay attention to the explicit final results of those doctors. This research, on the other hand, includes ordinary medical doctors as well as the renowed ones, and adjusts the focus to the lifetime period of their growth and activities. As a result, the misunderstanding and obscurity about the Korean medical doctors of north area during this period have been cleared. The new characteristics of the Korean medical doctors of this period have been found, along with their embodiment of historical significance. At the time, Koreans had to get through a number of qualifications in order to become doctors. First is the unique background of origin in which the family held interest in the modern education and was capable of supporting it financially. Second is the long-term status of education that the education from elementary to high school was completed without interruption. Third is the academic qualification that among various institutions of higher education, medical science was chosen as a major. Fourth is the condition of career in which as the career as a doctor had consistently continued. Thus, in oder to become a modern medical doctor, Koreans had to properly complete these multiple steps of process. The group of Korean medical doctors in north area, which was formed after getting through these series of process, possessed a number of characteristics. Firstly, as the upper-middle classes constituted the majority of medical doctors in Korea, the societal status of doctors rose and the foundation for the career as a doctor to be persisted as the family occupation settled. Secondly, the research career and academic degree became the principal method to escape from the discrimination and hierarchy existed between doctors. A PhD degree, especially, was the significant mark for clearly displaying the abilities and outcomes of the doctors. Lastly, the research career, education experience, clinical training and such that the Korean doctors of the period had built up were weak at the time, however, they were important sources for the future medical science development. Indeed, after Liberation, the rapid settlement and growth of Korea's medical science field were largely beholden to thus. Therefore, the growth of the Koreans as doctors did not cease in colonial Korea, but instead continued onto the history of future generations. In spite of the fact that the Korean doctors's growth and activities were greatly limited under the forceful policy of colonial domination of the era, the efforts the Korean doctors had put were not in vain. Likewise, if we do not fix our attention at the dominating policy and system, but rather put together the actors' correspondence and struggles of the period, then the Korean doctors will be a part of the living history. Hereby, the clue to the paradox between the suppression of medical science in colonial Korea and its leap after Liberation can be untied.
Colonialism ; Education, Medical/*history ; Faculty/*history ; History, 20th Century ; Korea ; *Physicians ; Schools, Medical/*history

Yun Ti Wang studied medicine in England, different from other Korean medical doctors in early days. Yun, who entered medical school at Glasgow University in England in March 1919, graduated with a Bachelor of Medicine in October 1925, along with an England medical license. Yun began working as an instructor at Severance Medical College from November 1927, and received Doctor of Medicine from the College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists at Kyoto Imperial University in August 1936. After the Liberation, Yun began working as a faculty member at the medical school at Seoul University, and he also worked as a Chief of the Second Medical Clinic of the school from 1946. Yun made a great effort in order to build an integrated committee, eventually contributing to the launching of Joseon Medical Associates in 1947. He was also elected as a first president at Joseon Obstetrics and Gynecology Associates, which was organized at the same year as the Joseon Medical Associates. Yun entered military as an army surgeon in April 1949 and has worked there until he was appointed as a principal at the Army Medical School in September 1953. His contributions to the development of military medical services include the following: expansion of medical facilities in army, stable system of workforce in military medical service, launching of Medical Aid and establishment of Department of Medical Care, and introduction of new medical technologies in anesthesiology and neurosurgery, etc. The career of Yun can be largely divided into the field of gynecology and military medical services. In the gynecological field, Yun contributed to the settlement of obstetrics in Korea, by taking in charge of the obstetrics class at Severance following medical missionaries. As for the military medical services, he has contributed to the establishment of military medical system as well as to the opening of new academic areas. The impact of his activities on the establishment of military medical services is especially significant, since it was a field that no Korean citizens had access to during the colonization era.
Education, Medical/history ; England ; Gynecology/history ; History, 20th Century ; Korea ; Military Medicine/*history ; Obstetrics/*history ; Societies, Medical/history

In Taegu, the Yaknyongshi was established as early as the 9th year of King Hyojong(1658) of the Chosen Dynasty, and in the 10th year of King Hyojong(1659) the 'Tonguibogam' was published as a Yongyongbon edition by the Kyongsang Provincial Government In fact, it may not be an exaggeration to say that Taegu was the base of the traditional medicine in Korea. In the meantime the general public began to become aware of the importance of Western medicine when Dr. Woodbridge O Johnson of the Northern Presbyterian Church introduced Western medicine by opening the 'Miguk Yakpang'(American dispensary) and began to teach Western medicine to Korean youths. At that time, while constructing the Kyong for a war against Russia, Japanese began to establish hospitals in several major cities and towns along the railway line and mobilized Tonginhae doctors. However, those medical facilities were solely for the benefit of Japanese people residing in Korea and had nothing to do with ordinary Koreans. The attached medical school of the Taegu Tonginuiwon failed, contrary to expectation, to turn out even a single Korean medical doctor. This hospital was later reorganized into Taegu Chahyeuiwon and was soon closed according to the policy of educational unification of the Government General Korea. The keen interest in the Western medicine shown by the people of Taegu resulted from the long history of this area as a base of Oriental medicine. More than 10 years after the abolition of the institute far Western medicine in Pyongyang a Western medical training center was inaugurated as a night school in January 1923 by the Chahyeuiwon and the school began to be operated under the name of the Pyongyang Provincial Medical Training Institute. In July 1923, in Taegu, the Taegu Medical Training Institute was inaugurated in the compound of the Chahyeuiwon as a night school in imitation of the institute in Pyongyang. In march 1924, this institute, following the example of that in Pyongyang was renamed the Taegu Provincial Medical Training Institute with the promulgation of a decree of Kyongsangbukdo regarding the regulation on the Taegu Medical Training Institute. Thanks to the strong demand by the population of the Kyongsanbukdo, fund-raising and other campaigns by Koreans and Japanese, and active efforts by the local governmental authorities, the Taegu Provincial Medical Training Institute was approved as an institute of a semimedical college level by the Government-General in Korea with the promulgation of the regulations on the Kyongsangbuk-do Medical Training Institute in May 1929. In March 1930, both the Taegu Provincial Medical Training Institute and Pyongyang Provincial Medical Training Institute were designated as "Uihakkyo(medical school)" by the Government-General in Korea. By this designation, the graduates of the schools were given a medical license permitting them to practice medicine in korea. That is to say, the graduates enjoyed the same privilege to exercise professional right within Korea as those of other medical colleges. Three years later, on March 4 1933, the regulations on public schools in Korea were revised and, on March 6, the establishment of medical colleges were permitted. Thus, in Kyongsangbukdo, the regulations on the Taegu Medical College were proclaimed in the form of a decree of the provincial government and, in accordance with the regulations, professors were nominated and students were recruited. In the meantime, with the timely completion of construction of the college building in August 1933, the college moved to the new compound in November of the same year. Thus, the Taegu Medical College, equipped with new facilities, emerged and satisfied the long-cherished desire of the people in this area. Unlike the Pyongyang Medical College, the Taegu Medical College had some Korean teaching staff members. They were: Pak Jae-Hwan(professor) ; Seo Sung-Hae, Chung He-Taek, Lee Myeng-Hun, Kwon Kil-Chae, Choe Duk-Saeng, Pae Chong-Ho, Lee Chil-Hui(assistant professor) ; and Cha Ham-Su, Kee Yong-Suk(instructors). They taught and conducted research in various departments of clinical and basic medicine. However, there were few Korean graduates of the Taegu Medical College who continued study and research at their alma mater. It is known that Korean graduates of this medical college did their study and research mostly at medical colleges in Japan or at the Medical Department of the Kyongsuong Imperial University. The author wishes to pay his tribute of sincere praise to the painstaking efforts and diligence of the small number of graduates of this medical college who, in spite of the haughtiness and prejudice by the Japanese, conducted study and research that later led to the foundation of the Kyongbuk University Medical College.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea

Medical education in North Korea began with 2 medical colleges established during the 1930s and 1940s, and each Province came to have one medical college by the 1970s. It is presumed to exist 14 medical colleges in 1992. Apart from medical colleges, there are several kinds of medical schools. the number of medical practitioners has increased as the number of educational institutes for medicine increased. In 1996, there was 29.7 medical practitioners for 10,000 persons. They have several kinds of academic degrees in North Korea. They include: Wonsa, candidate Wonsa, doctor, vice-doctor, candidate doctor. In the university they have professor, associate professor, associate professor, lecturer, and research assistant. Academic degrees and positions are given not by the university nor research institute, but by the Government Board for Awarding Academic Degree and Position. Concerning research institutes, there is Chosen Institute for Medical Science that once was a medical research center under the Central Science Academy, and became an independent institute in 1963. Besides this institute, universities have their own research institutes, and there are also some other independent institutes.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea

The core of the Family Medicine (FM) vision is patient-centred care, requiring specific education and vocational training. We traced how FM education started and what have been achieved. FM training began in 1971 with the formation of the College of General Practitioners Singapore. Previously, training consisted of self-directed learning, lunchtime talks and examination preparation courses run by hospital specialists. Formal FM vocational training programmes in the United Kingdom and Australia provided the model for a 3-year programme in 1988. The tripartite relationship between the local university, College of Family Physicians and Ministry of Health, together with a structured training programme, contributed to its success. To date, more than 240 Family Physicians in Singapore have been awarded the Masters in Medicine (FM) degree. The Graduate Diploma in Family Medicine programme (GDFM) was introduced in 2000 for Family Physicians who wished to practice at an enhanced level. This programme has trained 194 doctors since then. Behind the scenes, the following were important developments: counterculture with a difference, tripartite stake-holding, training the trainers and learning from others. For the FM undergraduate programme, our aim is to develop the knowledge base, core values and roles of the Family Physician. Sustaining the value of Family Medicine as a career choice is the enduring vision.
Credentialing ; history ; Education, Medical, Continuing ; history ; Education, Medical, Graduate ; history ; Family Practice ; education ; history ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Humans ; Singapore

Faculty, Medical ; history ; History, 20th Century ; Hospitals, Teaching ; history ; Humans ; Male ; Neurology ; education ; history ; Singapore ; Societies, Medical ; history

The education of Introduction to Medicine for the medical students can be traced back to the Hippocratic medicine in ancient Greece, when regarded some essays on the nature of medical care in Corpus Hippocraticum. However, its modern precurser may be the medical historian, Henry Sigerist who published the book: Einfuhrung in die Medizin (Introduction to Medicine) in 1931 on the basis of his lecture at Leipzig University. Influenced probably by the German medical tradition the education of the Introduction to Medicine has been flourished in the medical schools in Japan since 1941. In Korea the course has been introduced in 1971 and only few universities have adopted it as the regular course for medical students, while the education of behavioral science in the medical schools became more popular since 1970. The objectives and the contents of the education of the Intorduction to Medicine seem to be different according to the organizer of this course. This study deals with the questions about the objectives and contents of the Introduction to Medicine. Fourteen books by twelve authors entitled with either the Introduction to Medicine or the relevant one which were published in Japan, except for the above mentioned book of Sigerist, since 1945 were under the investigation. The motivations and the purposes of the authors for the publications of the books and their contents were compared each other in which the guidelines for the education of Introduction to Medicine were indirectly reflected. From this investigations it was recognized, the ways of editing or writing such books were so diverse that one could not elucidate any unitary direction. However, one could classify the books into three major categories in their approaches. One was a philosophical approach toward the nature of medicine including the nature of science, nature of life, the nature of man and the medical care and it was represented by Omotaka Hisayuki, the philosopher and medical ontologist in Japan. The second one was the historical approach toward the nature of the medicine represented by Sigerist and adopted partly by Kawakita in Japan. The third category was the combinations of both philosophical and historical approaches. In discussion the objectives and contents of the education of Introduction to Medicine of Seoul National University premedical course were demonstrated and also the newly published book of Introduction to Medicine volume I, II, III in Korea edited by the author. The similarities and differences of the course of 'Introduction to Medicine' from the 'Medical Overview or Guide to Medicine' from 'Behavioral Science' and from the course of 'the Medical History' were taken into consideration. As a conclusion it was suggested that the Introduction to Medicine should remain as an unique scientific field and curriculum for the medical students, as Omotaka has emphasized. The goal of this science should be set in search for the ultimate nature of the medicine and the nature of its objects; the life, man, illness and healing and also physician and patient in the human society. As for the methodological approach the author had preferences for uniqueness, creativity and flexibility in construction of the curriculum of the Introduction to Medicine rather than to try to standardize the curriculum common to all universities. It seems, however, to be desirable that the approaches are comprehensive and interdisciplinary including both philosophical and historical approaches in addition to the psychological, sociocultural and anthropological approaches.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; Germany ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Publishing/*history ; Textbooks/*history

During the Japanese imperialism, an attempt for colonial education in the Korean peninsula was to put into operation of a medical education movement. This plan was set up by the Tong-in club in 1907 and the foundations were laid in Pyong-yang and Tae-gu Tong-in hospitals. This report is a review acheiving the approach that was underplotted with the intention of the colonial education policy. Also, this report centralizes on the objectives of the Tong-in club establishment and the details of the medical education movement in the Korean peninslula. On June 16th, 1902, the Tong-a Don-mun club, Tong-a-mun club, Tong-mun medical club were established under the management of Mr. Irizawa Tatchkiji. The objectives of these clubs were to spread and popularize medical science into the Qing-Dynasty, Choson Dynasty and other countries. Tong-in club practiced modern medicine in the Korean peninsula. With the reason that they were responsible for cultural movement in the colonial region, the Tong-in club stayed in action until the Pacific war ended. Thus, they were playing a role similar to that of a lady-in-waiting in the aggressive war among the Imperialists. The Tong-in club was an organization with 6 main functions; 1) To provide modern medicine, prevent epidemics, maintain a sanitation level and to back up the Doctor Education Movement 2) To publish the Tong-in club's medical magazine 3) To translate and publish Chinese medical books 4) To train and provide seminars to Chinese doctors 5) To encourage communications from Chinese students studying medicine in Japan 6) To examine the standard of the hygiene in China etc. to other things To examine, the Doctor Education Movement in An-dong in the Manchurian region spread to the Chinese and Choson people in the Korean peninsula, also the Doctor Education Movement put into operation in Pyong-yang and Tae-gu. The summary of the An-dong Tong-in club's activities as follows; (1) The activities of An-dong Tong-in hospital educated 21 Koreans and 12 Chinese in 1911, but only 2 Koreans and 1 Chinese were able to graduate from the process. An-dong hospital was at the management by the principal Mr Sakazaki, and was under the pains in finance. (2) The activities of Tae-gu Tong-in hospital started on the 1st of February 1907, and continued till April 1911. Then activities they took over to the institute of medical center in Seoul attached to the Goverment-General in Choson. They educated 30 students every 1st semester and 2nd semester with the principal Mr Ikegami Shhiro as leader but all of them couldn't graduate without falling behind except 5. The contents of education mainly consisted of the Japanese language, preparatory subjects, physics, and anatomy, but they were superficial in depth. Besides that, girl students could be instructed about nursery and childbirth and delivery. And they also trained 40 students majoring in vaccination by the second term. (3) The activities of Pyong-yang Tong-in club was put into operation on December 1906. They made the medical institute attached to public Tong-in hospitals and from the days on October 1907, Mr Sato Kotcho gave his full interest in the education of the medical spheres of Korean students. The medical institute attached to Tong-in hospital had taken over the school of a private-village styled education administered by Mr Nakamura Tomitcho at the Taedong gate street on April 1905. He was the creator of medical education in that region and took a spread and hidden role in the development of medical history in Korea. 15 or 16 medical students were taught the apprentices through an interpreter at a Korean-style house in 1907. The excellent students from the public Japanese school took the role of the interpreters. At that time the Choson government gave 600 won every month to the Pyong-yang and Taegu hospitals. It seemed that the Resident-General Ito Hirobumi gazed with deep interest and anxiety on these hospital's behaviors and progress. The Pyongyang Jahye hospital taking over the former Pyongyang-hospital's duties, had 57 students including 8 seniors, 3 juniors, 6 sophomores, and 36 freshmen. There were 13 students in the nursery department including 6 Korean preparatory students and 5 Japanese and 2 Korean regular students. The first 8 students graduated form the Pyong-yang Jahye hospital in September 1910. They held a medical license without examination and entered the service of the patients at Jahye public hospitals in Won-ju, Chun-chon and Kwang-ju. I think that the projects of medical education starting from Tong-in club disappeared completely under the dictatorship of the Governor-General. It is certain that the Japanese medical education might take a great role in the development of the history in the spheres of Korean medicine. But the Japanese imperialistic government began, with deep interest and anxiety, whether it was really necessary to educate the Korean students in medical spheres. Namely, it seemed that there were many quarrelsome arguments about the necessity of medical education on the Choson colony. But it was paradoxically fortunate, the Tong-in club obtained good results to some extent by keeping the principles of the Residenty-General. It was short terms no more than 3 years but Tong-in club tried to practice the medical education projects, under the name of literally the Same Humanity and Charitly, but it managed to appease the minds of the colonized Korean people. It was the medical education projects in Tong-in club that caused a combat in outpost of the education principles of colony under 'the Same Humanity and Charity between Japan and Choson' at the just end of 3. 1 Movement by the inauguration of Saito Makkot the Governor-General. We can arrive at conclusion that the Japanese colonists tried to approach colonial education through the medical education by following the examples of western-imperialistic countries. The medical education projects of Tong-in club were the basic and continual principles since emerging Choson into Japan as colony. Namely it could be highlighted that the medical education practices of Tong-in club were planned and driven as a part of pervasion of the Japanese colonial education principles, namely 'the Same Humanity and Charity between Japan in Choson'.
Colonialism/*history ; Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Societies/*history