BACKGROUND: Lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) are well-known environmental pollutants. They are unnecessary in the biological processes of humans. This study was performed to estimate the representative background exposure levels to the metals by measuring concentrations in whole blood of the Korean general population. METHODS: This population-based cross-sectional study included 4,000 subjects (1,886 males and 2,114 females) 0–83 years of age in 2010 and 2011. Adult subjects (≥ 19 years of age) were collected by sex- and age-stratified probability method, and preschool- and school-aged subjects were recruited by a cluster sampling method. Written consent was provided prior to blood sampling. Pb and Cd blood concentrations were determined by a flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and blood Hg was analyzed by a direct Hg analyzer. RESULTS: The geometric mean, median and 95th percentile of blood Pb was 1.82 µg/dL, 1.83 µg/dL, and 3.78 µg/dL, respectively. The respective values were 2.92 µg/L, 2.87 µg/L, 9.12 µg/L for Hg, and 0.56 µg/L, 0.59 µg/L, 2.20 µg/L for Cd. Blood Pb and Hg were higher in males than in females, but no sex difference was observed, respectively, in subjects 0–4 years of age for Pb and in subjects less than 20 years for Hg. However, blood Cd was higher in females than in males and no sex difference was observed in subjects < 30 years of age. CONCLUSION: This study provides representative data of human exposure to Pb, Hg, and Cd covering whole age groups of the general population in Korea.
Adult ; Biological Processes ; Cadmium ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Environmental Pollutants ; Female ; Humans ; Korea ; Male ; Metals ; Methods ; Sex Characteristics ; Spectrophotometry, Atomic

No abstract available.
Colonoscopy* ; Hematoma*

OBJECTIVES: This survey was designed to conduct the first nationwide dietary exposure assessment on hazardous substances including the intakes of functional food and herbal medicine. In this paper, we introduced the survey design and the results of the dietary exposure status and internal exposure levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). METHODS: We selected 4867 subjects of all ages throughout Korea. We conducted a food survey, dietary survey, biomonitoring, and health survey. RESULTS: Pb and Cd were the highest (median value) in the seaweed (94.2 mug/kg for Pb; 594 mug/kg for Cd), and Hg was the highest in the fish (46.4 mug/kg). The dietary exposure level (median value) of Pb was 0.14 mug/kg body weight (bw)/d, 0.18 mug/kg bw/d for Cd, and 0.07 mug/kg bw/d for Hg. Those with a blood Pb level of less than 5.00 mug/dL (US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, reference value for those 1 to 5 years of age) were 99.0% of all the subjects. Those with a blood Cd level with less than 0.30 mug/L (German Federal Environmental Agency, reference value for non-smoking children) were 24.5%. For those with a blood Hg level with less than 5.00 mug/L (human biomonitoring I, references value for children and adults, German Federal Environmental Agency) was 81.0 % of all the subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The main dietary exposure of heavy metals occurs through food consumed in a large quantity and high frequency. The blood Hg level and dietary exposure level of Hg were both higher than those in the European Union.
Adult ; Body Weight ; Cadmium ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) ; Child ; Eating ; Environmental Monitoring ; European Union ; Food Safety* ; Functional Food ; Hazardous Substances* ; Health Surveys ; Herbal Medicine ; Humans ; Korea ; Metals, Heavy ; Reference Values ; Seaweed

OBJECTIVES: This survey was designed to conduct the first nationwide dietary exposure assessment on hazardous substances including the intakes of functional food and herbal medicine. In this paper, we introduced the survey design and the results of the dietary exposure status and internal exposure levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). METHODS: We selected 4867 subjects of all ages throughout Korea. We conducted a food survey, dietary survey, biomonitoring, and health survey. RESULTS: Pb and Cd were the highest (median value) in the seaweed (94.2 mug/kg for Pb; 594 mug/kg for Cd), and Hg was the highest in the fish (46.4 mug/kg). The dietary exposure level (median value) of Pb was 0.14 mug/kg body weight (bw)/d, 0.18 mug/kg bw/d for Cd, and 0.07 mug/kg bw/d for Hg. Those with a blood Pb level of less than 5.00 mug/dL (US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, reference value for those 1 to 5 years of age) were 99.0% of all the subjects. Those with a blood Cd level with less than 0.30 mug/L (German Federal Environmental Agency, reference value for non-smoking children) were 24.5%. For those with a blood Hg level with less than 5.00 mug/L (human biomonitoring I, references value for children and adults, German Federal Environmental Agency) was 81.0 % of all the subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The main dietary exposure of heavy metals occurs through food consumed in a large quantity and high frequency. The blood Hg level and dietary exposure level of Hg were both higher than those in the European Union.
Adult ; Body Weight ; Cadmium ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) ; Child ; Eating ; Environmental Monitoring ; European Union ; Food Safety* ; Functional Food ; Hazardous Substances* ; Health Surveys ; Herbal Medicine ; Humans ; Korea ; Metals, Heavy ; Reference Values ; Seaweed

OBJECTIVES: Little is yet known about the determinants of bone mineral density (BMD) in young adults. Thus, in this study, we aimed to determine the factors that have an impact on BMD in young men. METHODS: Questionnaires were sent out to 111 male medical students. Information on age, socio-economic status, medical history, lifestyle, physical activity during adolescence, school club participation, current physical activity, and dietary intake were collected by the survey. Height, weight, percent body fat and muscle mass were estimated by bioelectrical impedance, and BMD was obtained using calcaneal quantitative ultrasound. Using the Poisson regression model, prevalence ratios (PRs) were used to estimate the degree of association between risk factors and osteopenia. RESULTS: The height and current physical activity showed a correlation to the Osteoporosis Index. Among the categorized variables, past physical activity during adolescence (p=0.002) showed a positive effect on the bone mineral content. In the multivariate model, past physical activity (> or =1 time/wk) had a protective effect on osteopenia (PR, 0.37; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.18 to 0.75) and present physical activity (1000 metabolic equivalent of task-min/wk) decreased the risk of osteopenia (PR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.44 to 0.91). CONCLUSIONS: Past physical activity during adolescence is as important as physical activity in the present for BMD in young men.
Adult ; Body Mass Index ; *Bone Density ; Calcium, Dietary ; Humans ; Male ; *Motor Activity ; Questionnaires ; Risk Factors ; Smoking ; Socioeconomic Factors ; Students, Medical/psychology ; Young Adult

In several previously reported studies, metabolic syndrome (MS) was found to be associated with colorectal adenomas. While the incidence of colorectal adenoma is growing in Korean population, there are only few studies that examined the association between MS and colorectal adenoma in Korea. The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between prevalence of colorectal adenoma and MS components. We conducted a cross sectional study using data from individuals who had undergone complete colonoscopy for health examinations at the Health Promotion Center of Korea University Medical Center from July 1, 2004 to July 31, 2010. A total of 7481 subjects (4459 males and 3022 females) were included; 1733 subjects with pathologically proven adenoma were assigned to the case group, and other 5748 subjects were assigned to the non-case group. All the participants underwent colonoscopy and received blood biochemical tests (fasting blood sugar [FBS], insulin, lipid profile, hemoglobin, blood urea nitrogen [BUN], creatinine). Univariate analysis showed that the prevalence of colorectal adenoma was higher in individuals with higher blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), FBS and lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterols (HDL-C) levels, compared to those with low levels. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that high levels of BMI (OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.01-1.34, P trend = 0.01), TG (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.51, P trend = 0.006), and FBS (OR 1.19 95% CI 1.01-1.40, P trend = 0.05) were significantly associated with prevalence of colorectal adenoma. Subjects with high levels of BMI, TG and FBS have increased prevalence of developing colorectal adenoma in Korea.
Academic Medical Centers ; Adenoma* ; Blood Glucose* ; Blood Pressure ; Blood Urea Nitrogen ; Body Mass Index ; Cholesterol ; Colonoscopy* ; Fasting* ; Health Promotion ; Humans ; Incidence ; Insulin ; Korea ; Lipoproteins ; Logistic Models ; Male ; Mass Screening* ; Prevalence ; Risk Factors* ; Triglycerides*

OBJECTIVES: Arsenic (As) is ubiquitously distributed in the environment and is known as a human carcinogen. In this study, acute As toxicity at lethal dosage in rats and mice was evaluated, and As-induced hepatotoxicity was characterized. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats, male ICR mice and trivalent inorganic As, sodium arsenite, were used in this experiment. LD50 and LD100 were calculated from 24-hour lethality after the single subcutaneous administration of As into rats and mice. Serum and liver were collected from the surviving animals. The activities of ALT, AST and gamma-GT in serum were determined, and the concentrations of MDA, GSH and CYP450 in liver were analyzed. RESULTS: The LD50 and LD100 of sodium arsenite were calculated as 12 mg/kg and 13 mg/kg for rats, and 16.5 mg/kg and 19 mg/kg for mice, respectively. Thus, the rat was more susceptible than the mouse to the acute lethal toxicity of As. The histopathological changes induced by As were similar between rats and mice. AST was increased in high-dose As-treated rats and mice, whereas ALT was increased in high-dose As-treated mice but not in rats. gamma-GT was not significantly changed between the two animal groups. As increased lipid peroxidation, but decreased GSH and CYP450 in the liver of both rats and mice, in dose-dependent patterns. These results indicate that oxidative stress might be one of the mechanisms in As-induced hepatotoxicity. CONCLUSION: Rats were more susceptive than mice to acute As toxicity, and oxidative stress might play a part in liver injury induced by As.
Animals ; Arsenic* ; Humans ; Lethal Dose 50 ; Lipid Peroxidation ; Liver ; Male ; Mice* ; Mice, Inbred ICR ; Oxidative Stress ; Rats* ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Sodium

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to find the protective effects of garlic on the halogenated hydrocarbon induced hepatotoxicities, and the possible protection mechanisms involved. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats received garlic (0.5 %) or regular diet, for 4 weeks. This was followed by a single dose of corn oil (the controls), carbon tetrachloride (400mg/kg body weight) and trichloroethylene (2,000mg/kg body weight) being administered to each diet group. Blood samples were collected 24 hours following the administration, and the serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities measured. The liver samples were studied for their cytochrome P450 and CYP2E1 contents, lipid peroxidation and histopathology. RESULTS: The results for the group receiving the 0.5 % garlic diet showed a slight decrease of CYP2E1 expression compared with the regular diet group. Carbon tetrachloride was significantly decreased the CYP2E1 contents in both the regular and garlic diet groups, but the trichloroethylene remained unchanged. Garlic did not decrease the lipid peroxidation of the liver in the control group, but attenuated the increase of lipid peroxidation caused by carbon tetrachloride. Garlic attenuated the increase of both the serum AST and ALT activities caused by carbon tetrachloride. The histopathological observations also showed that garlic attenuated centrilobular necrosis and vacuolar degenerative changes significantly in the carbon tetrachloride treated group. Conclusions : The results indicate that garlic attenuates the carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity, through the prevention of the metabolic activation and lipid peroxidation.
Alanine Transaminase ; Aspartate Aminotransferases ; Biotransformation ; Carbon Tetrachloride ; Carbon* ; Corn Oil ; Cytochrome P-450 CYP2E1 ; Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System ; Diet ; Garlic* ; Humans ; Lipid Peroxidation ; Liver ; Male ; Necrosis ; Protective Agents ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Trichloroethylene

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the age-dependent response of testicular toxicity and the mechanism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) induced testicular toxicity. METHODS: DEHP was administered orally in doses of 0, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg/day, for 7 days, to 3, 6 and 9 week-old Sprague-Dawley rats. Testicular weight and sperm head counts, plasma level of DEHP, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and testicular lipid peroxidation were measured. Histopathological changes in the testis were observed. RESULTS: Reductions in weight gains, and relative testis weights, were observed in the 3 week-old rats in a dose-dependent manner, but not in the 6 and 9 week-old rats, compared to those of the control rats. Sperm head counts were decreased in the 6 week-old rats exposed to 2.0 g/kg/day, but not in the 9 week-old rats. Testicular atrophy and significant size reduction of the seminiferous tubule were observed in a dose-dependent manner in the 3 week-old rats. The plasma concentrations of MEHP were higher than those of DEHP, with these levels being most elevated in the younger rats. Lipid peroxidation, following exposed to DEHP, was increased in a dose-dependent manner in the 3 week-old, but with no changes in the 6 and 9 week-old rats. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest the age related difference observed in the testicular response to the oral administration of DEHP may be due to the metabolism, and that oxidative stress may be related to the mechanism of DEHP induced testicular toxicity.
Administration, Oral ; Animals ; Atrophy ; Diethylhexyl Phthalate ; Lipid Peroxidation ; Metabolism* ; Oxidative Stress ; Plasma ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Seminiferous Tubules ; Sperm Head ; Testis ; Weight Gain ; Weights and Measures

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the age-dependent response of testicular toxicity and the mechanism of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) induced testicular toxicity. METHODS: DEHP was administered orally in doses of 0, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg/day, for 7 days, to 3, 6 and 9 week-old Sprague-Dawley rats. Testicular weight and sperm head counts, plasma level of DEHP, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and testicular lipid peroxidation were measured. Histopathological changes in the testis were observed. RESULTS: Reductions in weight gains, and relative testis weights, were observed in the 3 week-old rats in a dose-dependent manner, but not in the 6 and 9 week-old rats, compared to those of the control rats. Sperm head counts were decreased in the 6 week-old rats exposed to 2.0 g/kg/day, but not in the 9 week-old rats. Testicular atrophy and significant size reduction of the seminiferous tubule were observed in a dose-dependent manner in the 3 week-old rats. The plasma concentrations of MEHP were higher than those of DEHP, with these levels being most elevated in the younger rats. Lipid peroxidation, following exposed to DEHP, was increased in a dose-dependent manner in the 3 week-old, but with no changes in the 6 and 9 week-old rats. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest the age related difference observed in the testicular response to the oral administration of DEHP may be due to the metabolism, and that oxidative stress may be related to the mechanism of DEHP induced testicular toxicity.
Administration, Oral ; Animals ; Atrophy ; Diethylhexyl Phthalate ; Lipid Peroxidation ; Metabolism* ; Oxidative Stress ; Plasma ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Seminiferous Tubules ; Sperm Head ; Testis ; Weight Gain ; Weights and Measures