BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to investigate the characteristics of propofol abuse based on the results of a survey analysis of abusers among non-healthcare professionals in Korea. METHODS: Thirty-eight propofol abusers were questioned between October and December 2010, and were enrolled and voluntarily participated in a structured survey consisting of an interview and completing a previously prepared questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into three distinct parts: part 1 dealt with the history of propofol abuse; part 2 highlighted the problems caused by propofol abuse; and part 3 enquired regarding demographics of abusers. RESULTS: Thirty-one (81.6%) of the 38 interviewees abused propofol for more than one year. During the last 12 months, 34 (89.0%) received propofol at two or three times a week. The minimum and maximum amounts of propofol (median, range) administered each time were 500 (100, 1000) and 2000 (500, 4000) mg, respectively. Stress relief and the maintenance of a sense of well-being were quoted the most important reasons for the first-time administration of propofol and its subsequent abuse, respectively. The majority of abusers (36.0, 97.3%) reported a sense of pleasure or euphoria at the time of their propofol injection. Withdrawal symptoms occurred in five abusers (13.2%). Thirteen (36.1%) reported disruptions in their work life. None of the respondents had previously admitted to and or reported abuse of any other controlled substances. CONCLUSIONS: These results provided reference data for the regulation of propofol in Korea as a controlled substance and may also be of interest to international agencies in other countries.
Controlled Substances ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Demography ; Euphoria ; International Agencies ; Korea* ; Pleasure ; Propofol* ; Substance Withdrawal Syndrome

Recently, there has been a rise in the number of amphetamine derivatives that serve as substitutes for controlled substances (e.g. amphetamine and methamphetamine) on the global illegal drug market. These substances are capable of producing rewarding effects similar to their parent drug. In anticipation of the future rise of new and similar psychoactive substances, we designed and synthesized four novel amphetamine derivatives with N-benzyl, N-benzylamphetamine HCl (NBNA) substituent on the amine region, 1,4-dioxane ring, ethylenedioxy-amphetamine HCl (EDA), methyl, para-methylamphetamine HCl (PMEA), and naphthalene, 2-(aminopropyl) naphthalene HCl (2-APN) substituents on the phenyl site. Then, we evaluated their abuse potential in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test in mice and self-administration (SA) test in rats. We also investigated the psychostimulant properties of the novel drugs using the locomotor sensitization test in mice. Moreover, we performed qRT-PCR analyses to explore the effects of the novel drugs on the expression of D1 and D2 dopamine receptor genes in the striatum. NBNA, but not EDA, PMEA, and 2-APN, induced CPP and SA in rodents. None of the test drugs have produced locomotor sensitization. qRT-PCR analyses demonstrated that NBNA increased the expression of striatal D1 dopamine receptor genes. These data indicate that NBNA yields rewarding effects, suggesting potential for abuse. Continual observation for the rise of related substances is thus strongly encouraged.
Amphetamine* ; Animals ; Controlled Substances ; Humans ; Mice ; Parents ; Rats ; Receptors, Dopamine ; Reward ; Rodentia

Synthetic cannabinoids (CBs) such as the JWH series have caused social problems concerning their abuse liability. Because the JWH series produces euphoric and hallucinogenic effects, they have been distributed illegally under street names such as "Spice" and "Smoke". Many countries including Korea have started to schedule some of the JWH series compounds as controlled substances, but there are a number of JWH series chemicals that remain uncontrolled by law. In this study, three synthetic CBs with different binding affinities to the CB1 receptor (JWH-073, 081, and 210) and Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta9-THC) were evaluated for their potential for psychological dependence. The conditioned place preference test (unbiased method) and self-administration test (fixed ratio of 1) using rodents were conducted. Ki values of the three synthetic cannabinoids were calculated as supplementary data using a receptor binding assay and overexpressed CB1 protein membranes to compare dependence potential with CB1 receptor binding affinity. All mice administered JWH-073, 081, or 210 showed significantly increased time spent at unpreferred space in a dose-dependence manner in the conditioned place preference test. In contrast, all tested substances except Delta9-THC showed aversion phenomenon at high doses in the conditioned place preference test. The order of affinity to the CB1 receptor in the receptor binding assay was JWH-210 > JWH-081 >> JWH-073, which was in agreement with the results from the conditioned place preference test. However, no change in self-administration was observed. These findings suggest the possibility to predict dependence potential of synthetic CBs through a receptor binding assay at the screening level.
Animals ; Appointments and Schedules ; Cannabinoids* ; Controlled Substances ; Jurisprudence ; Korea ; Mass Screening ; Membranes ; Mice ; Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1 ; Rodentia ; Social Problems

Opioids are widely used as painkillers and anesthetics. Though we use opioids to relieve pain, these drugs can induce mood elevation, dependency, and withdrawal symptoms. This is why opioids are controlled-substances. Most physicians think that some substances should be controlled if they have opioid-like pharmacological properties, especially a long duration, preservation of respiration, and dependency. It is noteworthy that short-acting substances, such as midazolam and thiopental, are included in controlled substances. Their abuse is very dangerous because they frequently induce severe respiratory depression due to a narrow therapeutic window. Teaching point of this article is that designation of a new drug as a controlled substance requires scientific evidence of its link to dependency and/or withdrawal symptoms. However, this does not require abusers' convenience (long duration) or safety (maintenance of respiration). The authors present the addiction and abuse patterns of propofol as an reasons for the Korean Food and Drug Administration to designate propofol as a controlled substance. As a future study, an animal and/or a clinical model for dependency is needed to identify addictive substances. Though several neurotransmitters and their loci in the central nervous system have been studied, the precise mechanism for addiction is unknown. Also, it should be recognized that the potential for drug addiction and abuse could be masked in the early marketing period of a new drug. Physicians should monitor patients' responses carefully when they deal with the drug.
Aluminum Hydroxide ; Analgesics, Opioid ; Anesthetics ; Animals ; Carbonates ; Central Nervous System ; Controlled Substances ; Dependency (Psychology) ; Drug and Narcotic Control ; Marketing ; Masks ; Midazolam ; Neurotransmitter Agents ; Organothiophosphorus Compounds ; Propofol ; Respiration ; Respiratory Insufficiency ; Substance Withdrawal Syndrome ; Substance-Related Disorders ; Thiopental ; United States Food and Drug Administration