Forskolin is a complex labdane plant diterpenoid, which has been used in the treatment of a variety of diseases based on its activity as an activator of adenosine monophosphate(cAMP) cyclase. Natural forskolin exists only in the cork layer of the root of Coleus forskohlii. Due to the complexity of the extraction and chemical synthesis processes, the yield and purity of forskolin cannot meet commercial requirements. In recent years, with the rapid development of synthetic biology and the analysis and interpretation of many diterpene biosynthetic pathways, a new approach has been provided for the green production of forskolin. In this paper, the structure, activity, biosynthetic pathway and the heterologous biosynthesis of forskolin were reviewed. The problems and solutions in the heterologous biosynthesis of forskolin were also discussed and summarized, which will provide references for the construction of high-yielding forskolin engineering strains.
Biosynthetic Pathways ; Colforsin

BACKGROUND: Renin is secreted from the juxtaglomerular (JG) cells in response to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. To study the underlying mechanism of regulation of renin secretion at molecular level, pure JG cell lines (As 4.1) cloned from renal JG tumor was used. In this study, to explore the feasibility of As 4.1 cells as an in vitro model for renin secretion, the changes of renin secretion from As 4.1 in culture during cell cycle were characterized. METHODS: To address this issue, As 4.1s were synchronized in G0, G1, S, G2, early M and late M phase during experiment. RESULTS: The rate of renin secretion was above 1 ng AI/well/hr in G0, G2/M and early mitotic phase and 0.5 ng AI/well/hr in G1, G1/S, S and late mitotic phase. ML-7 (6x10(-5) M), an inhibitor of MLCK which is known to stimulate renin secretion, increased the rate of renin secretion much greater in G1, G1/S, S and late M phase than the other phases; in particular, in early mitotic phase it had no stimulation. On the other hand, the rate of renin secretion was not influenced through out cell cycles by calyculin A, an inhibitor of type 1 protein phosphatase. Forskolin, an activator of adenlyate cyclase resulting in an elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP, stimulated renin secretion only in S phase in a concentration dependent manner. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrated that As 4.1 cells in culture secrete active renin in much the similar manner to JG cells in situ but its rate varies during each phase of the cell cycle. Thus As 4.1 cells can be utilized as an in vitro model for renin secretion. But, changes in the rate of renin secretion and the secretory responses to stimulators or inhibitors during cell cycle must be considered in conducting experiments to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanism of the renin secretion.
Cell Cycle* ; Cell Division ; Cell Line ; Clone Cells ; Colforsin ; Cyclic AMP ; Hand ; Renin* ; S Phase

A number of substances involved in the proliferation and differentiation of the tracheobronchial epithelium have been identified. The defects in the control of the proliferation and differentiation of tracheobronchial epithelial cells appear to constitute crucial steps in the transition of normal cells to neoplastic ones. Endothelin-1 is produced by tracheal epithelial cells, and its receptors are present in tracheal epithelial cells. However, the effect of endothelin-1 on the proliferation and differentiation of tracheal epithelial cells has not been clearly elucidated. This study was undertaken to investigate these actions of endothelin-1 in primary cultured cells of rat tracheal epithelia. Endothelin-1 stimulated proliferation of tracheal epithelial cells 1.5-fold when compared with that of control cells. Endothelin-1 increased mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity. Herbimycin A, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, inhibited endothelin-1-induced proliferation of epithelial cells. The treatment of endothelin-1 during the primary culture of tracheal epithelial cells increased AB-PAS-stained cell population and ciliated cell population 6.5 fold and 1.5 fold, respectively, when compared with those in control cells. The responsiveness to carbachol and forskolin in the Cl- secretion was increased 1.7 and 1.9 fold, respectively, in the endothelin-treated epithelial cells. These results indicated that endothelin-1 increases proliferation via MAPK pathway and stimulates differentiation to secretory and ciliated cells in rat tracheal epithelial cells.
Animals ; Carbachol ; Cells, Cultured ; Colforsin ; Endothelin-1* ; Epithelial Cells* ; Epithelium ; Protein Kinases ; Protein-Tyrosine Kinases ; Rats*

Mg2+ is an important regulator of many cardiac functions. However, regulation of intracellular Mg2+ activity in the heart is not well characterized. To assess the effect of histamine H2-receptor stimulation on intracellular Mg2+ regulation, changes in extracellular Mg2+ concentration were examined under a variety of conditions in perfused guinea pig hearts. Mg2+ in the cardiac perfusate was measured by atomic absorbance spectrophotometry. The histamine (10(-6) M induced a marked Mg2+ efflux from the heart. The H2-receptor antagonists, cimetidine (10(-5) M), ranitidine (10(-5) ND, but not a H1-receptor antagonist, diphenhydramine (3 X 10(-6) M), completely blocked the histamine-induced Mg2+ efflux. The Mg2+ efflux could also be induced by forskolin (3 X 10(-6) M), 8-Cl-cAMP (2 X 10(-4) M), permeable cAMP analogue, or dimaprit, (10(-5) M). However, the carbachol (10(-5) M) considerably decreased the efflux of Mg2+. In the presence of papaverine (10(-5) M), a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, dimaprit-induced Mg2+ efflux was potentiated. These results suggest that a significant Mg2+ efflux from perfused guinea pig heart by histamine can be induced by the histamine H2-receptor stimulation and it is suggested that cytosolic cAMP may be linked.
Animals ; Carbachol ; Cimetidine ; Colforsin ; Cytosol ; Dimaprit ; Diphenhydramine ; Guinea Pigs* ; Guinea* ; Heart* ; Histamine* ; Magnesium ; Papaverine ; Ranitidine ; Spectrophotometry

Some malignant melanoma cells regress spontaneously by terminal differentiation, and understanding the mechanisms of this spontaneous regression can contribute to the development of a new therapy not only for melanoma but also for other cancers. The signal transducing G protein is one component of the signaling pathways for the differentiation-inducing molecules such as alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) and cAMP. To investigate the role of G proteins in the differentiation process, we analyzed the expression of various G proteins by quantitative Western blot and cAMP response in human malignant melanoma cell lines. SK-MEL-3 cells expressed the largest amount of stimulatory G protein alpha subunit (G(s) alpha) and the largest amount of inhibitory G protein alpha subunit (G(i) alpha) was expressed in Malme-3M cells among the 4 melanoma cell lines analyzed in this experiment. The SK-MEL-28 cells exhibited largest amount of alpha subunit of G(q) and the beta subunits. The cAMP formation by forskolin stimulation was largest in the Malme-3M. The amount of cAMP formation did not show any correlation with the expression of G(s) alpha nor that of G(i) alpha. The population doubling time was longest in Malme-3M cells. In this experiment, we found that the melanoma cells vary widely both in the expression of various G proteins and in cAMP production depending on the cell lines.
alpha-MSH ; Blotting, Western ; Cell Line* ; Colforsin ; GTP-Binding Protein alpha Subunits ; GTP-Binding Proteins* ; Humans* ; Melanoma*

BACKGROUND: Activation of G-protein coupled-somatostatin receptors induces the release of calcium from inositol 1, 4, 5-trisphosphate-sensitive intracelluar stores. G-protein-coupled receptor signaling decreases with prolonged exposure to an agonist. SEBJECTS and METHODS: Fura-2-based digital Ca2+ imaging was used to study the effects of prolonged exposure to an agonist on the somatostatin-induced intracellular Ca2+ concentration([Ca2+]i) increases in NG108-15 cells, which were differentiated with CO2-independent medium and 10micrometer forskolin. RESULTS: Exposure to somatostatin(1micrometer) for 30 min completely desensitized the NG108-15 cells to a second somatostatin-induced response. The cells recovered gradually over 20 min following washout of the somatostatin. The desensitization was not due to depletion of the intracellular Ca2+ stores, and pretreatment for 30 min with bradykinin(100nM), which activates phospholipase C, or DADLE(D-Ala2-D-Leu5 enkephalin, 1microM), which activates phospholipase C, failed to cross-desensitize the somatostatin-evoked [Ca2+]i increases. Treatment with 8-cpt-cAMP(0.1mM) for 30min did not influence the somatostatin-induced[Ca2+]i increases. Phorbol 12, 13-dibutyrate(PdBu, 1microM) blocked the response completely. Down-regulation of PKC due to 24 h exposure of PdBu (1microM) inhibited the somatostatin-induced desensitization. CONCLUSION: Prolonged exposure of somatostatin to NG108-15 cells desensitized the somatostatin-induced release of Ca2+ from the intracelluar store, with protein kinase C also involved in the desensitization.
Calcium* ; Colforsin ; Down-Regulation ; Enkephalins ; GTP-Binding Proteins ; Inositol ; Protein Kinase C* ; Protein Kinases* ; Somatostatin ; Type C Phospholipases

PURPOSE: Response to radioiodine therapy for thyroid cancer is related to the loss of sodium-iodine symporter protein caused by dedifferentiation of thyroid cancer cells. So we aimed to study mRNA expression of CD97, dedifferentiation marker, and sodium-iodine symporter after retinoic acid treatment according to retinoids receptor status. METHODS: Thyroid cancer cell lines; ARO, FRO, NPA, TPO, and FTC133 were prepared. 5µM of all trans retinoic acid were administered to each cell lines and then expression of m RNA for retinoids receptors (RARα, RARβ, RARγ, RXRα, RXRβ, RXRγ), CD97, and Sodium-Iodine symporter by RT-PCR. RESULTS: RARs and RXRs were differently expressed in each cell line. After retinoic acid treatment, relative density of retinoic acid receptor mRNA were increased by time dependently in each cell line except TPO cell line. Expression of CD97 also was decreased in every cell lines (P<0.001). Retinoic acid increased expression of sodium-iodine symporter only in FTC133 cell line (P<0.001), and TSH or forskolin did not enhance NIS expression by retinoic acid. RARβ and RXRγ were expressed only in FTC 133cell line before treatment. Induction of sodium-iodine symporter by retinoids disappeared after RARβ specific antagonist LE135 or pan RXR antagonist PA452 administration. CONCLUSION: Retinoic acid reduced expression of CD97 in five thyroid cancer cell lines. However, retinoic acid could restore sodium-iodine symporter expression in only FTC 133 cell line specifically containing RARβ and RXRγ. Restoration of sodium-iodine symporter expression by retinoic acid is related to RARβ and RXRγ expression.
Cell Line* ; Colforsin ; Ion Transport* ; Receptors, Retinoic Acid ; Retinoids ; RNA ; RNA, Messenger ; Specific Gravity ; Thyroid Gland* ; Thyroid Neoplasms* ; Tretinoin*

BACKGROUND: In the previous studies, we identified that the interferon-gamma activated sequence (GAS) in the 5-flanking region of rat ICAM-1 gene is major element for interferon-y-inducible expression of the gene in rat thyroid cells, FRTL-5. We here, investigated the role of transcriptional coactivators, CBP (CREB binding protein) and CIITA (class II transactivator) in the modulation of the activity of GAS which could interacts with signal transducers and activators of transcription-1 and 3 (STAT1 and STAT3). METHODS: The expression of CBP RNA and protein were quantitated in FRTL-5 after stimulation with interferon-y (IFN-gamma), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), forskolin and methimazole. Direct association of CBP with STAT were analyzed by irnmunoprecipitation. The transcriptional roles of CBP and CIITA in the regulation of GAS were assessed by the cotransfection with their expression vectors with reporters; 5-deletion constructs of rat ICAM-1 promoter or 8xGAS-luc constructs, into FRTL-5 thyroid cells. RESULTS: The level of CBP RNA and protein were not changed by the treatment with TSH, IFN-y, forskolin and methimazole in FRTL-5, FRT and BRL liver cells. The CBP could be directly associated with STAT1. Furthernmore, the overexpression of CBP significantly increases the both promoter activities; rat ICAM-1 gene promoter which has GAS element and 8xGAS-luc cassette constructs. However the cotransfection of CI1TA decreased the constitutive and CBP-mediated transactivation of rat ICAM-1 promoter and SxGAS-luc cassette constructs. CONCLUSION: We identified that the two transcriptional coactivators; CBP and CIITA has differential roles in the regulation of transcriptional activity of GAS drived promoter. CBP increases the GAS activity through the direct binding with STATl, but CIITA inhibited the CBP-mediated transactivation of GAS activity.
Animals ; Colforsin ; Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 ; Interferon-gamma ; Liver ; Methimazole ; Rats ; RNA ; Thyroid Gland* ; Thyrotropin ; Transcriptional Activation ; Transducers

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are confirmed to be expressed in bladder interstitial Cajal-like cells (ICC-LCs), but little is known about their possible role in cystitis-associated bladder dysfunction. The present study aimed to determine the functional role of HCN channels in regulating bladder function under inflammatory conditions. Sixty female wild-type C57BL/6J mice and sixty female HCN1-knockout mice were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, respectively. Cyclophosphamide (CYP)-induced cystitis models were successfully established in these mice. CYP treatment significantly enhanced HCN channel protein expression and I(h) density and significantly altered bladder HCN1 channel regulatory proteins. Carbachol (CCH) and forskolin (FSK) exerted significant effects on bladder ICC-LC [Ca²⁺]i in CYP-treated wild-type (WT) mice, and HCN1 channel ablation significantly decreased the effects of CCH and FSK on bladder ICC-LC [Ca²⁺]i in both naive and CYP-treated mice. CYP treatment significantly potentiated the spontaneous contractions and CCH (0.001-10 µM)-induced phasic contractions of detrusor strips, and HCN1 channel deletion significantly abated such effects. Finally, we demonstrated that the development of CYP-induced bladder overactivity was reversed in HCN1 -/- mice. Taken together, our results suggest that CYP-induced enhancements of HCN1 channel expression and function in bladder ICC-LCs are essential for cystitis-associated bladder hyperactivity development, indicating that the HCN1 channel may be a novel therapeutic target for managing bladder hyperactivity.
Animals ; Carbachol ; Colforsin ; Cyclophosphamide ; Cystitis ; Female ; Humans ; Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels* ; Mice* ; Telocytes* ; Up-Regulation* ; Urinary Bladder*

Adipose tissue is the main energy reserve of the body. When energy is required, adipocyte triglycerides stored in lipid droplets (LDs) are broken down by lipase, and free fatty acids are released to supply the physiological need. Intracellular LDs are active metabolic organelles in mammalian cells, particularly in adipocytes. The present study was aimed to investigate the morphological changes of LDs and the alternation of LD-associated perilipin family proteins during long-term lipolysis stimulated by forskolin. Primary differentiated adipocytes derived from epididymal fat pads of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were incubated in the presence or absence of 1 μmol/L forskolin for 24 h. Content of glycerol released to the culture medium was determined by a colorimetric assay and served as an index of lipolysis. Morphological changes of LDs were observed by Nile red staining. The mRNA level of perilipin family genes was detected by quantitative real-time PCR. The protein level and subcellular localization were examined by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence staining, respectively. The results showed that forskolin induced sustained lipolysis in differentiated adipocytes. The morphology of LDs changed in a time-dependent manner. Large clustered LDs became gradually smaller in size and eventually disappeared; in contrast, peripheral micro-LDs increased gradually in number until the cytoplasm was filled with numerous micro-LDs. The protein level of the perilipin family proteins showed obvious alternation. Mature adipocytes physiologically expressed a very low level of Plin2 protein, whereas in adipocytes stimulated with lipolytic forskolin, the protein and mRNA levels of Plin2 were significantly increased, and the increased Plin2 was specifically bound to the surface of LDs. During chronic stimulation of forskolin, the mRNA level of Plin3 was unchanged, but the mRNA levels of Plin1, Plin4 and Plin5 were significantly decreased. These results suggest that the morphology of LDs and perilipin family proteins on the surface of LDs are significantly altered during long-term lipolysis stimulated by forskolin, representing a dynamic process of the remodeling of LDs.
Adipocytes ; drug effects ; Animals ; Cells, Cultured ; Colforsin ; pharmacology ; Lipid Droplets ; Lipolysis ; Perilipin-2 ; metabolism ; Perilipins ; metabolism ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley