The redox biosynthesis system has important applications in green biomanufacturing of chiral compounds. Formate dehydrogenase (FDH) catalyzes the oxidation of formate into carbon dioxide, which is associated with the reduction of NAD(P)⁺ into NAD(P)H. Due to this property, FDH is used as a crucial enzyme in the redox biosynthesis system for cofactor regeneration. Nevertheless, the application of natural FDH in industrial production is hampered by low catalytic efficiency, poor stability, and inefficient coenzyme utilization. This review summarized the structural characteristics and catalytic mechanism of FDH, as well as the advances in protein engineering of FDHs toward improved enzyme activity, catalytic efficiency, stability and coenzyme preference. The applications of using FDH as a coenzyme regeneration system for green biomanufacturing of chiral compounds were summarized.
Catalysis ; Coenzymes/metabolism* ; Formate Dehydrogenases/metabolism* ; NAD/metabolism* ; Protein Engineering

The synthesis of fine chemicals using multi-enzyme cascade reactions is a recent hot research topic in the field of biocatalysis. The traditional chemical synthesis methods were replaced by constructing in vitro multi-enzyme cascades, then the green synthesis of a variety of bifunctional chemicals can be achieved. This article summarizes the construction strategies of different types of multi-enzyme cascade reactions and their characteristics. In addition, the general methods for recruiting enzymes used in cascade reactions, as well as the regeneration of coenzyme such as NAD(P)H or ATP and their application in multi-enzyme cascade reactions are summarized. Finally, we illustrate the application of multi-enzyme cascades in the synthesis of six bifunctional chemicals, including ω-amino fatty acids, alkyl lactams, α, ω-dicarboxylic acids, α, ω-diamines, α, ω-diols, and ω-amino alcohols.
Amino Acids ; Biocatalysis ; Amino Alcohols ; Coenzymes/metabolism* ; Diamines

The chemical manufacturing industry that uses fossil resources as raw materials, consumes non-renewable resources and also causes damage to the ecological environment, stimulating the development of bio-manufacturing with renewable resources as raw materials. Unlike traditional chemical manufacturing, bio-manufacturing uses cells as a "production workshop", and each process in the "workshop" is catalyzed by enzymes. In addition to mild reaction conditions, the "cell factory" has strong plasticity, and can be used to synthesize various target chemicals according to demand adjustment or reconstitution of metabolic pathways. The design process of the "cell factory" follows the following guidelines: 1) Construct an optimal synthetic route from raw materials to products; 2) Balance the metabolic flux of each reaction in the metabolic pathway, so that the metabolic flux of this pathway is much higher than the primary metabolism of the cells; 3) Precursor supply in the pathway should be sufficient, and adjust multiple precursors supply ratio as needed; 4) enzymatic reactions often involve the participation of various cofactors, smooth metabolic pathways need to balance or regenerate various cofactors; 5) Through genetic modification or process improvement to remove metabolic intermediates and products feedback inhibition to achieve higher yields.
Biotechnology ; Cells ; metabolism ; Coenzymes ; metabolism ; Metabolic Engineering ; Metabolic Networks and Pathways ; genetics

C677T mutation in the gene encoding 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) predisposes to hyperhomocysteinemia in vivo and is known to be one of the causes of perinatal ischemic stroke. As MTHFR plays a role in the metabolism of homocysteine, C677T mutation may account for reduced enzymatic activity resulting in hyperhomocysteinemia. This may be prevented by introducing activity-enhancing coenzymes such as folic acid, vitamin B6, and B12. Though C677T mutation is known as a significant risk factor for cerebral infarction, reported cases of cerebral infarction among affected neonates are scarce. This report describes a case of a neonate homozygous for C677T mutation who had a perinatal ischemic stroke, born in a mother whose folic acid and nutritional consumption had been reduced during pregnancy.
Cerebral Infarction* ; Coenzymes ; Folic Acid ; Homocysteine ; Humans ; Hyperhomocysteinemia ; Infant, Newborn ; Metabolism ; Mothers ; Oxidoreductases ; Pregnancy ; Risk Factors ; Stroke ; Vitamin B 6

The xylose reductase of Pichia stipitis is one of the most important enzymes. It can be used to build up recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain for utilizing xylose and producing ethanol. Intercellular redox imbalance caused by NADPH preference over NADH for Pichia stipitis xylose reductase (PsXR) has been considered to be one of the main factors for poor ethanol productivity. Some key amino acids of PsXR, which affect the activity or coenzyme preference, were investigated in our previous study. In this study, Lys21 were rational designed for site-directed mutagenesis to alter coenzyme specificity of PsXR from NADPH and NADH into single NADH. The wild gene and mutagenesis genes were ligated into pET28b, and were transferred into E.coli BL21(DE3). After induced by IPTG, the xylose reductases were purified. Purified mutants K21A (Lys21-->Ala), K21R(Lys21-->Arg) were characterized by steady-state kinetic analysis. The results showed that the coenzyme dependence of K21A was completely reversed to NADH.
Aldehyde Reductase ; metabolism ; Amino Acid Substitution ; genetics ; Coenzymes ; pharmacology ; Escherichia coli ; genetics ; metabolism ; Ethanol ; pharmacology ; Lysine ; genetics ; Mutagenesis, Site-Directed ; NAD ; metabolism ; NADP ; metabolism ; Pichia ; chemistry ; genetics ; metabolism ; Recombinant Proteins ; biosynthesis ; genetics ; metabolism ; Recombination, Genetic ; Xylose ; pharmacology

Biotin is an important micronutrient that serves as an essential enzyme cofactor. Bacteria obtain biotin either through de novo synthesis or by active uptake from exogenous sources. Mycobacteria are unusual amongst bacteria in that their primary source of biotin is through de novo synthesis. Here we review the importance of biotin biosynthesis in the lifecycle of Mycobacteria. Genetic screens designed to identify key metabolic processes have highlighted a role for the biotin biosynthesis in bacilli growth, infection and survival during the latency phase. These studies help to establish the biotin biosynthetic pathway as a potential drug target for new anti-tuberculosis agents.
Biotin ; biosynthesis ; Carbon-Carbon Ligases ; metabolism ; Carrier Proteins ; metabolism ; Cell Membrane ; metabolism ; Coenzymes ; metabolism ; Fatty Acids ; biosynthesis ; Genes, Bacterial ; Genome, Bacterial ; Metabolic Networks and Pathways ; Molecular Structure ; Mycobacterium Infections ; microbiology ; Mycobacterium tuberculosis ; genetics ; metabolism ; pathogenicity ; physiology ; Virulence

Purine & pyrimidine nucleotides are basic constituents of cellular DNA and RNA polynucleotides. Their function includes regulation of cell metabolism and function, energy conservation and transport and formation of coenzymes and active intermediates of phospholipids and carbohydrate metabolism. The origin of cellular purines and pyrimidines is almost exclusively endogenous source, and the dietary purines play only a minor role. Diagnostic and clinical markers of purine and pyrimidine nucleotide disorders are the level of uric acid, xanthine, hypoxanthine, orotic acid, uracil, thymine, dihydrouracil, dihydrothymine, and succinyladenosine. Clinical manifestations of purine and pyrimidine metabolic disorders are crystalluria and acute renal failure, infections, failure to thrive, and anemia. One of purine metabolic disorders, Lesch-Nyhan disease, is X-linked recessive disorder, presenting motor delay, cerebral palsy, involuntary movements, self-injurious behavior, hyperurcemia, uricosuria, urinary calculi and gouty arthritis. Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase(HPRT) is deficient.
Acute Kidney Injury ; Anemia ; Arthritis, Gouty ; Carbohydrate Metabolism ; Cerebral Palsy ; Coenzymes ; DNA ; Dyskinesias ; Failure to Thrive ; Hypoxanthine ; Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome* ; Metabolism* ; Orotic Acid ; Phospholipids ; Polynucleotides ; Purines ; Pyrimidine Nucleotides ; Pyrimidines ; RNA ; Self-Injurious Behavior ; Thymine ; Uracil ; Uric Acid ; Urinary Calculi ; Xanthine ; Biomarkers