One of the earliest methods used in the manufacture of stable and safe vaccines is the use of chemical and physical treatments to produce inactivated forms of pathogens. Although these types of vaccines have been successful in eliciting specific humoral immune responses to pathogen-associated immunogens, there is a large demand for the development of fast, safe, and effective vaccine manufacturing strategies. Radiation sterilization has been used to develop a variety of vaccine types, because it can eradicate chemical contaminants and penetrate pathogens to destroy nucleic acids without damaging the pathogen surface antigens. Nevertheless, irradiated vaccines have not widely been used at an industrial level because of difficulties obtaining the necessary equipment. Recent successful clinical trials of irradiated vaccines against pathogens and tumors have led to a reevaluation of radiation technology as an alternative method to produce vaccines. In the present article, we review the challenges associated with creating irradiated vaccines and discuss potential strategies for developing vaccines using radiation technology.
Antigens, Surface ; Immunity, Humoral ; Nucleic Acids ; Sterilization ; Vaccines*

Global guidelines strongly recommend annual influenza vaccination in people age 6 months and older, particularly in asthmatic children. There is no doubt about the benefit of influenza vaccination in asthmatic children. However, some of the vaccine's components may elicit an IgE mediated hypersensitivity or disease exacerbation, including life-threatening events, in children with allergic diseases. As a result, concerns regarding the safety of the vaccine still continue today. The influenza vaccine is grown on hens' eggs and contains a trace of egg protein. Consequently, it can provoke an allergic reaction or anaphylaxis in children with an egg allergy or exacerbation in those with asthma. Therefore, we need to know the risks and benefits of the influenza vaccine and the best strategy for safe vaccination. Although most guidelines have consistently reported the safety of influenza vaccination in children with allergic disease, and have recommended annual administration, safety concerns impede guideline-based performance in practice. The safety and efficacy of influenza vaccination for allergic children are summarized in the present review.
Anaphylaxis ; Asthma ; Child* ; Disease Progression ; Egg Hypersensitivity ; Eggs ; Humans ; Hypersensitivity ; Hypersensitivity, Immediate ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human* ; Ovum ; Risk Assessment ; Vaccination* ; Vaccines

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease that affects approximately 50,000 people annually in Asia, causing 10,000 deaths. Considering the role of pigs as the virus-amplifying host and the economic loss in the swine industry, JE is an important disease for both public and animal health. A nationwide JE virus (JEV) vaccination program has been conducted annually for more than 30 years to prevent severe reproductive disorders in the Korean sow population. Remarkable progress in molecular biology has made it possible to analyze the genome of the vaccine strain at the nucleotide and amino acid levels. However, the scientific record of the current JEV veterinary vaccine has not been reported. Therefore, this article outlines the current JEV vaccine strain used in animals and discusses future directions for developing new veterinary JEV vaccines.
Animals ; Asia ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group* ; Encephalitis Viruses, Japanese ; Encephalitis, Japanese* ; Genome ; Humans ; Korea* ; Molecular Biology ; Swine ; Vaccination ; Vaccines* ; Zoonoses

The use of pneumococcal vaccine plays an important role for prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). However, introducing the pneumococcal vaccine into the national immunization program (NIP) is complex and costly. The strategy of progressively integrating the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) into the NIP in Taiwan provides valuable experience for policy makers. The 7-valent PCV (PCV7) was first available in Taiwan in late 2005. PCV7 was first provided free to children with underlying diseases, those in vulnerable socioeconomic status, and those with inadequate health care resources. The catch-up immunization program with the 13-valent PCV was launched in 2013 and the national pneumococcal immunization program was implemented in 2015. Children aged 2-5 years had the highest incidence of IPD among pediatric population in Taiwan. Although the incidence of IPD caused by PCV7 serotypes has declined, the overall incidence of IPD remained high in the context of PCV7 use in the private sector. A surge of IPD caused by serotype 19A occurred, accounting for 53.6% of IPD cases among children aged < or = 5 years in 2011-2012. After the implementation of the national pneumococcal immunization program, serogroup 15 has become the leading serogroup for IPD in children. Continued surveillance is necessary to monitor the serotype epidemiology in Taiwan.
Administrative Personnel ; Child ; Delivery of Health Care ; Epidemiology ; Humans ; Immunization Programs ; Incidence ; Pneumococcal Vaccines* ; Private Sector ; Social Class ; Taiwan*

In this review, we mainly focus on zoonotic encephalitides caused by arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) of the families Flaviviridae (genus Flavivirus) and Togaviridae (genus Alphavirus) that are important in both humans and domestic animals. Specifically, we will focus on alphaviruses (Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus) and flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis virus and West Nile virus). Most of these viruses were originally found in tropical regions such as Africa and South America or in some regions in Asia. However, they have dispersed widely and currently cause diseases around the world. Global warming, increasing urbanization and population size in tropical regions, faster transportation and rapid spread of arthropod vectors contribute in continuous spreading of arboviruses into new geographic areas causing reemerging or resurging diseases. Most of the reemerging arboviruses also have emerged as zoonotic disease agents and created major public health issues and disease epidemics.
Africa ; Alphavirus* ; Animals, Domestic ; Arboviruses* ; Arthropod Vectors ; Asia ; Encephalitis ; Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine ; Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine ; Encephalitis Viruses ; Encephalomyelitis, Equine ; Epidemiology* ; Flaviviridae ; Flavivirus* ; Global Warming ; Humans ; Population Density ; Public Health ; South America ; Togaviridae ; Transportation ; Urbanization ; Zoonoses

Currently, the increasing numbers of vaccine administrations are associated with increased reports of adverse vaccine reactions. Whilst the general adverse reactions including allergic reactions caused by the vaccine itself or the vaccine components, are rare, they can in some circumstances be serious and even fatal. In accordance with many IgE-mediated reactions and immediate-type allergic reactions, the primary allergens are proteins. The proteins most often implicated in vaccine allergies are egg and gelatin, with perhaps rare reactions to yeast or latex. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the injectable influenza vaccine can be safely administered, although with appropriate precautions, to patients with severe egg allergy, as the current influenza vaccines contain small trace amounts of egg protein. If an allergy is suspected, an accurate examination followed by algorithms is vital for correct diagnosis, treatment and decision regarding re-vaccination in patients with immediate-type reactions to vaccines. Facilities and health care professionals should be available to treat immediate hypersensitivity reactions (anaphylaxis) in all settings where vaccines are administered.
Allergens ; Anaphylaxis ; Delivery of Health Care ; Diagnosis ; Egg Hypersensitivity ; Gelatin ; Humans ; Hypersensitivity* ; Hypersensitivity, Immediate ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human ; Latex ; Ovum ; Vaccines ; Yeasts

In today's medical industry, the range of vaccines that exist for administration in humans represents an eclectic variety of forms and immunologic mechanisms. Namely, these are the live attenuated viruses, inactivated viruses, subunit proteins, and virus-like particles for treating virus-caused diseases, as well as the bacterial-based polysaccharide, protein, and conjugated vaccines. Currently, a new approach to vaccination is being investigated with the concept of DNA vaccines. As an alternative delivery route to enhance the vaccination efficacy, microneedles have been devised to target the rich network of immunologic antigen-presenting cells in the dermis and epidermis layers under the skin. Numerous studies have outlined the parameters of microneedle delivery of a wide range of vaccines, revealing comparable or higher immunogenicity to conventional intramuscular routes, overall level of stability, and dose-sparing advantages. Furthermore, recent mechanism studies have begun to successfully elucidate the biological mechanisms behind microneedle vaccination. This paper describes the current status of microneedle vaccine research.
Antigen-Presenting Cells ; Bacterial Vaccines ; Dermis ; Epidermis ; Humans ; Skin ; Vaccination ; Vaccines ; Vaccines, DNA

Chronic diseases such as obesity and diabetes are major causes of death and disability throughout the world. Many causes are known to trigger these chronic diseases, and infectious agents such as viruses are also pathological factors. In particular, it is considered that adenovirus 36 infections may be associated with obesity. If this is the case, a vaccine against adenovirus 36 may be a form of prophylaxis to combat obesity. Other types of therapeutic vaccines to combat obesity are also being developed. Recently, hormones such as glucagon-like peptide-1, ghrelin, and peptide YY have been studied as treatments to prevent obesity. This review describes the ongoing development of therapeutic vaccines to treat obesity, and the possibility of using inactivated adenovirus 36 as a vaccine and an anti-obesity agent.
Adenoviridae ; Cause of Death ; Chronic Disease ; Ghrelin ; Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 ; Obesity* ; Peptide YY ; Vaccines*

Hepatitis E has traditionally been considered an endemic disease of developing countries. It generally spreads through contaminated water. However, seroprevalence studies have shown that hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections are not uncommon in industrialized countries. In addition, the number of autochthonous hepatitis E cases in these countries is increasing. Most HEV infections in developed countries can be traced to the ingestion of contaminated raw or undercooked pork meat or sausages. Several animal species, including pigs, are known reservoirs of HEV that transmit the virus to humans. HEVs are now recognized as an emerging zoonotic agent. In this review, we describe the general characteristics of HEVs isolated from humans and animals, the risk factors for human HEV infection, and the current status of human vaccine development.
Animals* ; Developed Countries ; Developing Countries ; Eating ; Endemic Diseases ; Hepatitis E virus* ; Hepatitis E* ; Hepatitis* ; Humans* ; Meat ; Risk Factors ; Seroepidemiologic Studies ; Swine ; Vaccines ; Viruses ; Water Pollution ; Zoonoses

Vaccination is one of the most effective and cost-benefit interventions that prevent the mortality and reduce morbidity from infectious pathogens. However, the licensed influenza vaccine induces strain-specific immunity and must be updated annually based on predicted strains that will circulate in the upcoming season. Influenza virus still causes significant health problems worldwide due to the low vaccine efficacy from unexpected outbreaks of next epidemic strains or the emergence of pandemic viruses. Current influenza vaccines are based on immunity to the hemagglutinin antigen that is highly variable among different influenza viruses circulating in humans and animals. Several scientific advances have been endeavored to develop universal vaccines that will induce broad protection. Universal vaccines have been focused on regions of viral proteins that are highly conserved across different virus subtypes. The strategies of universal vaccines include the matrix 2 protein, the hemagglutinin HA2 stalk domain, and T cell-based multivalent antigens. Supplemented and/or adjuvanted vaccination in combination with universal target antigenic vaccines would have much promise. This review summarizes encouraging scientific advances in the field with a focus on novel vaccine designs.
Animals ; Disease Outbreaks ; Hemagglutinins ; Humans ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human* ; Mortality ; Orthomyxoviridae* ; Pandemics ; Seasons ; Vaccination ; Vaccines* ; Viral Proteins ; Viruses