In this review, we mainly focus on zoonotic encephalitides caused by arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) of the families Flaviviridae (genus Flavivirus) and Togaviridae (genus Alphavirus) that are important in both humans and domestic animals. Specifically, we will focus on alphaviruses (Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus) and flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis virus and West Nile virus). Most of these viruses were originally found in tropical regions such as Africa and South America or in some regions in Asia. However, they have dispersed widely and currently cause diseases around the world. Global warming, increasing urbanization and population size in tropical regions, faster transportation and rapid spread of arthropod vectors contribute in continuous spreading of arboviruses into new geographic areas causing reemerging or resurging diseases. Most of the reemerging arboviruses also have emerged as zoonotic disease agents and created major public health issues and disease epidemics.
Africa ; Alphavirus* ; Animals, Domestic ; Arboviruses* ; Arthropod Vectors ; Asia ; Encephalitis ; Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine ; Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine ; Encephalitis Viruses ; Encephalomyelitis, Equine ; Epidemiology* ; Flaviviridae ; Flavivirus* ; Global Warming ; Humans ; Population Density ; Public Health ; South America ; Togaviridae ; Transportation ; Urbanization ; Zoonoses

Currently, the increasing numbers of vaccine administrations are associated with increased reports of adverse vaccine reactions. Whilst the general adverse reactions including allergic reactions caused by the vaccine itself or the vaccine components, are rare, they can in some circumstances be serious and even fatal. In accordance with many IgE-mediated reactions and immediate-type allergic reactions, the primary allergens are proteins. The proteins most often implicated in vaccine allergies are egg and gelatin, with perhaps rare reactions to yeast or latex. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the injectable influenza vaccine can be safely administered, although with appropriate precautions, to patients with severe egg allergy, as the current influenza vaccines contain small trace amounts of egg protein. If an allergy is suspected, an accurate examination followed by algorithms is vital for correct diagnosis, treatment and decision regarding re-vaccination in patients with immediate-type reactions to vaccines. Facilities and health care professionals should be available to treat immediate hypersensitivity reactions (anaphylaxis) in all settings where vaccines are administered.
Allergens ; Anaphylaxis ; Delivery of Health Care ; Diagnosis ; Egg Hypersensitivity ; Gelatin ; Humans ; Hypersensitivity* ; Hypersensitivity, Immediate ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human ; Latex ; Ovum ; Vaccines ; Yeasts

In today's medical industry, the range of vaccines that exist for administration in humans represents an eclectic variety of forms and immunologic mechanisms. Namely, these are the live attenuated viruses, inactivated viruses, subunit proteins, and virus-like particles for treating virus-caused diseases, as well as the bacterial-based polysaccharide, protein, and conjugated vaccines. Currently, a new approach to vaccination is being investigated with the concept of DNA vaccines. As an alternative delivery route to enhance the vaccination efficacy, microneedles have been devised to target the rich network of immunologic antigen-presenting cells in the dermis and epidermis layers under the skin. Numerous studies have outlined the parameters of microneedle delivery of a wide range of vaccines, revealing comparable or higher immunogenicity to conventional intramuscular routes, overall level of stability, and dose-sparing advantages. Furthermore, recent mechanism studies have begun to successfully elucidate the biological mechanisms behind microneedle vaccination. This paper describes the current status of microneedle vaccine research.
Antigen-Presenting Cells ; Bacterial Vaccines ; Dermis ; Epidermis ; Humans ; Skin ; Vaccination ; Vaccines ; Vaccines, DNA

Chronic diseases such as obesity and diabetes are major causes of death and disability throughout the world. Many causes are known to trigger these chronic diseases, and infectious agents such as viruses are also pathological factors. In particular, it is considered that adenovirus 36 infections may be associated with obesity. If this is the case, a vaccine against adenovirus 36 may be a form of prophylaxis to combat obesity. Other types of therapeutic vaccines to combat obesity are also being developed. Recently, hormones such as glucagon-like peptide-1, ghrelin, and peptide YY have been studied as treatments to prevent obesity. This review describes the ongoing development of therapeutic vaccines to treat obesity, and the possibility of using inactivated adenovirus 36 as a vaccine and an anti-obesity agent.
Adenoviridae ; Cause of Death ; Chronic Disease ; Ghrelin ; Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 ; Obesity* ; Peptide YY ; Vaccines*

Hepatitis E has traditionally been considered an endemic disease of developing countries. It generally spreads through contaminated water. However, seroprevalence studies have shown that hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections are not uncommon in industrialized countries. In addition, the number of autochthonous hepatitis E cases in these countries is increasing. Most HEV infections in developed countries can be traced to the ingestion of contaminated raw or undercooked pork meat or sausages. Several animal species, including pigs, are known reservoirs of HEV that transmit the virus to humans. HEVs are now recognized as an emerging zoonotic agent. In this review, we describe the general characteristics of HEVs isolated from humans and animals, the risk factors for human HEV infection, and the current status of human vaccine development.
Animals* ; Developed Countries ; Developing Countries ; Eating ; Endemic Diseases ; Hepatitis E virus* ; Hepatitis E* ; Hepatitis* ; Humans* ; Meat ; Risk Factors ; Seroepidemiologic Studies ; Swine ; Vaccines ; Viruses ; Water Pollution ; Zoonoses

Vaccination is one of the most effective and cost-benefit interventions that prevent the mortality and reduce morbidity from infectious pathogens. However, the licensed influenza vaccine induces strain-specific immunity and must be updated annually based on predicted strains that will circulate in the upcoming season. Influenza virus still causes significant health problems worldwide due to the low vaccine efficacy from unexpected outbreaks of next epidemic strains or the emergence of pandemic viruses. Current influenza vaccines are based on immunity to the hemagglutinin antigen that is highly variable among different influenza viruses circulating in humans and animals. Several scientific advances have been endeavored to develop universal vaccines that will induce broad protection. Universal vaccines have been focused on regions of viral proteins that are highly conserved across different virus subtypes. The strategies of universal vaccines include the matrix 2 protein, the hemagglutinin HA2 stalk domain, and T cell-based multivalent antigens. Supplemented and/or adjuvanted vaccination in combination with universal target antigenic vaccines would have much promise. This review summarizes encouraging scientific advances in the field with a focus on novel vaccine designs.
Animals ; Disease Outbreaks ; Hemagglutinins ; Humans ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human* ; Mortality ; Orthomyxoviridae* ; Pandemics ; Seasons ; Vaccination ; Vaccines* ; Viral Proteins ; Viruses

Inflammasomes are cytosolic multiprotein complexes that sense microbial motifs or cellular stress and stimulate caspase-1-dependent cytokine secretion and cell death. Recently, it has become increasingly evident that both DNA and RNA viruses activate inflammasomes, which control innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. In addition, recent studies suggest that certain microbiota induce inflammasomes-dependent adaptive immunity against influenza virus infections. Here, we review recent advances in research into the role of inflammasomes in antiviral immunity.
Adaptive Immunity ; Cell Death ; Cytosol ; Dendritic Cells ; DNA ; Inflammasomes* ; Influenza Vaccines* ; Influenza, Human* ; Metagenome ; Microbiota ; Multiprotein Complexes ; Orthomyxoviridae ; RNA Viruses

No abstract available.

This study provides information regarding vaccine research and the epidemiology of influenza virus in neglected hosts (horses and dogs). Equine influenza virus (EIV) causes a highly contagious disease in horses and other equids, and outbreaks have occurred worldwide. EIV has resulted in costly damage to the horse industry and has the ability of cross the host species barrier from horses to dogs. Canine influenza is a virus of equine or avian origin and infects companion animals that live in close contact with humans; this results in possible exposure to the seasonal epizootic influenza virus. There have been case reports of genetic reassortment between human and canine influenza viruses, which results in high virulence and the ability of transmission to ferrets. This emphasizes the need for vaccine research on neglected hosts to update knowledge on current strains and to advance technology for controlling influenza outbreaks for public health.
Animals ; Disease Outbreaks ; Dogs* ; Epidemiology ; Ferrets ; Horses* ; Humans ; Influenza A virus ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human* ; Orthomyxoviridae* ; Pets ; Public Health ; Seasons ; Virulence

Johne's disease or paratuberculosis is a chronic debilitating disease in ruminants caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). The disease causes significant economic losses in livestock industries worldwide. There are no effective control measures to eradicate the disease because there are no appropriate diagnostic methods to detect subclinically infected animals. Therefore, it is very difficult to control the disease using only test and cull strategies. Vaccination against paratuberculosis has been considered as an alternative strategy to control the disease when combined with management interventions. Understanding host-pathogen interactions is extremely important to development of vaccines. It has long been known that Th1-mediated cellular immune responses are play a crucial role in protection against MAP infection. However, recent studies suggested that innate immune responses are more closely related to protective effects than adaptive immunity. Based on this understanding, several attempts have been made to develop vaccines against paratuberculosis. A variety of ideas for designing novel vaccines have emerged, and the tests of the efficacy of these vaccines are conducted constantly. However, no effective vaccines are commercially available. In this study, studies of the development of vaccines for MAP were reviewed and summarized.
Adaptive Immunity ; Animals ; Host-Pathogen Interactions ; Immunity, Cellular ; Immunity, Innate ; Livestock ; Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis* ; Mycobacterium avium* ; Mycobacterium* ; Paratuberculosis ; Ruminants ; Vaccination ; Vaccines*