BACKGROUND: Shift work has been associated with occupational stress in health providers and in those working in some industrial companies. The association is not well established in the law enforcement workforce. Our objective was to examine the association between shift work and police work-related stress. METHODS: The number of stressful events that occurred in the previous month and year was obtained using the Spielberger Police Stress Survey among 365 police officers aged 27-66 years. Work hours were derived from daily payroll records. A dominant shift (day, afternoon, or night) was defined for each participant as the shift with the largest percentage of total time a participant worked (starting time from 4:00 AM to 11:59 AM, from 12 PM to 7:59 PM, and from 8:00 PM to 3:59 AM for day, afternoon, and night shift, respectively) in the previous month or year. Analysis of variance and covariance were used to examine the number of total and subscale (administrative/professional pressure, physical/psychological danger, or organizational support) stressful events across the shift. RESULTS: During the previous month and year, officers working the afternoon and night shifts reported more stressful events than day shift officers for total stress, administrative/professional pressure, and physical/psychological danger (p < 0.05). These differences were independent of age, sex, race/ethnicity, and police rank. The frequency of these stressful events did not differ significantly between officers working the afternoon and night shifts. CONCLUSION: Non-day shift workers may be exposed to more stressful events in this cohort. Interventions to reduce or manage police stress that are tailored by shift may be considered.
Cohort Studies ; Humans ; Law Enforcement ; Life Change Events ; Police*

BACKGROUND: According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) accounted for 32% of all nonfatal injury and illness cases in 2014 among full-time workers. Our objective was to review and summarize the evidence linking occupational exposures to vibration and awkward posture with MSDs of the shoulder and neck. METHODS: A literature search was conducted using the terms musculoskeletal disorders, vibration, and awkward posture. All types of observational epidemiologic studies, with the exception of case reports, published during 1998–2015 were included. Databases searched were MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), Scopus, Ergonomic Abstracts, NIOSHTIC-2, and Health and Safety Science Abstracts. RESULTS: Occupational exposures to whole-body or hand–arm vibration were significantly associated with or resulted in MSDs of the shoulder and neck. Awkward postures while working were also associated with MSDs in these locations. These findings were consistent across study designs, populations, and countries. CONCLUSION: Occupational exposure to vibration and awkward posture are associated with shoulder and neck MSDs. Longitudinal studies are required to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for these associations, and intervention studies are warranted.
Epidemiologic Studies ; Longitudinal Studies ; Neck* ; Occupational Exposure ; Posture ; Shoulder Pain ; Shoulder* ; Vibration*

OBJECTIVES: Mental health has been shown to be linked with certain underlying physiological mechanisms. The objective of this cross sectional study was to investigate the relationship between depressive symptoms and brachial artery reactivity (BAR) in an understudied population: police officers. METHODS: Participants were 351 police officers who were clinically examined in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Police Stress (BCOPS) study. BAR was performed using standard B-Mode ultrasound procedures. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Mean values of the difference between the baseline and maximum diameters of the brachial artery were determined across three categories of CES-D score using the analysis of variance and the analysis of covariance. p-values for linear trends were obtained from linear regression models. RESULTS: The mean age (+/- standard deviation) of all officers was 40.9 +/- 7.2 years. Women had a slightly higher mean CES-D score than men (8.9 +/- 8.9 vs. 7.4 +/- 6.4) and a slightly higher percentage increase of BAR than men (6.90 vs. 5.26%). Smoking status significantly modified the associations between depressive symptoms and BAR. Among current smokers, mean absolute values of BAR significantly decreased as depressive symptoms increased after adjustment for age, gender, race/ethnicity, hypertension, and diabetes; the multivariate-adjusted p-values were 0.033 (absolute) and 0.040 (%). Associations between depressive symptoms and BAR were not statistically significant among former smokers or never smokers. CONCLUSION: Depressive symptoms were inversely associated with BAR among police officers who were current smokers and together may be considered a risk factor for cardiovascular disease among police officers. Further prospective research is warranted.
Brachial Artery ; Buffaloes ; Cardiovascular Diseases ; Depression ; Epidemiologic Studies ; Female ; Humans ; Hypertension ; Linear Models ; Male ; Mental Health ; Occupational Health ; Police ; Risk Factors ; Smoke ; Smoking

BACKGROUND: Shift work and/or sleep quality may affect health. We investigated whether shift work and sleep quality, separately and jointly, were associated with abnormal levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol (TC), and low-and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in 360 police officers (27.5% women). METHODS: Triglycerides, TC, and high-density lipoprotein were analyzed on the Abbott Architect; low-density lipoprotein was calculated. Shift work was assessed using City of Buffalo payroll work history records. Sleep quality (good, ≤ 5; intermediate, 6-8; poor, ≥ 9) was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index questionnaire. A shift work + sleep quality variable was created: day plus good sleep; day plus poor sleep; afternoon/night plus good; and poor sleep quality. Mean values of lipid biomarkers were compared across categories of the exposures using analysis of variance/analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Shift work was not significantly associated with lipids. However, as sleep quality worsened, mean levels of triglycerides and TC gradually increased but only among female officers (age- and race-adjusted p = 0.013 and 0.030, respectively). Age significantly modified the association between sleep quality and TC. Among officers ≥ 40 years old, those reporting poor sleep quality had a significantly higher mean level of TC (202.9 ± 3.7 mg/dL) compared with those reporting good sleep quality (190.6 ± 4.0 mg/dL) (gender- and race-adjusted p = 0.010). Female officers who worked the day shift and also reported good sleep quality had the lowest mean level of TC compared with women in the other three categories (p = 0.014). CONCLUSION: Sleep quality and its combined influence with shift work may play a role in the alteration of some lipid measures.
Biomarkers ; Buffaloes ; Cholesterol ; Female ; Humans ; Joints* ; Lipoproteins ; Police ; Triglycerides

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between psychological distress and obesity among law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the United States. METHODS: Self-reported data on psychological distress based on six key questions were obtained from LEOs who participated in the National Health Interview Survey (2004-2010). We used Prochaska's cut-point of a Kessler 6 score > or = 5 for moderate/high mental distress in our analysis. Mean levels of body mass index (BMI) were compared across three levels of psychological distress. RESULTS: The average age of LEOs (n = 929) was 39.3 years; 25% were female. Overall, 8.1% of LEOs had moderate or high psychological distress; 37.5% were obese (BMI > or = 30). Mean BMI increased with increasing psychological distress (no distress, BMI = 27.2 kg/m2; mild distress, 27.6 kg/m2; and moderate/high distress, 33.1 kg/m2; p = 0.016) after adjustment for age, race, income, and education level among female officers only. Physical activity modified the association between psychological distress and BMI but only among male LEOs (interaction p = 0.002). Among male LEOs reporting low physical activity, psychological distress was positively associated with BMI (30.3 kg/m2 for no distress, 30.7 for mild distress, 31.8 for moderate/high distress; p = 0.179) after adjustment, but not significantly. This association was not significant among males reporting high physical activity. CONCLUSION: Mean BMI significantly increased as psychological distress increased among female LEOs. A longitudinal study design may reveal the directionality of this association as well as the potential role that physical activity might play in this association.
Adiposity ; Body Mass Index ; Continental Population Groups ; Female ; Humans ; Jurisprudence ; Law Enforcement ; Male ; Motor Activity ; Obesity ; Police

BACKGROUND: Police work is generally sedentary although there may be situations that require physical endurance and strength, such as foot chases and arresting suspects. Factors such as excessive body fat can impede an officer's physical ability to deal with such occurrences. Our objective was to examine associations between officers' body fat percentage (BF%) and performance on a standardized fitness protocol. METHODS: Data were obtained from fitness screening among 1,826 male and 115 female officers in a large US police agency. The screening consisted of a 2.4-km run, push-ups, sit-ups, and sit-and-reach test. Sex-specific body fat percentages were estimated from skinfold thickness measured using calipers. Linear regression models were used to examine unadjusted and adjusted mean scores of fitness tests across BF% tertiles. RESULTS: The prevalence of overall fitness was 4.3 times greater in male officers and 3.6 times greater in female officers having the lowest BF% tertile compared with the highest tertile (30.3% vs 7.1% and 46.0% vs 12.8%, respectively). BF% was linearly and positively associated with the time of 2.4-km run (p < 0.001), and linearly and inversely associated with the number of push-ups (p < 0.001), sit-ups (p < 0.001), and the distance of sit-and-reach (p < 0.001) in men. Similar associations were observed in women with the exception of sit-and-reach (p = 0.122). Associations were independent of age, race/ethnicity, rank, and duty station. CONCLUSION: Overall, BF% was inversely associated with fitness levels in male and female officers. Future longitudinal studies should be initiated to explore the potentially causal relationship between BF% and fitness in law enforcement officers.
Adipose Tissue* ; Female ; Foot ; Humans ; Linear Models ; Longitudinal Studies ; Male ; Mass Screening ; Physical Endurance ; Police* ; Prevalence ; Skinfold Thickness