anatomy was started by Vesalius in sixteenth century Europe during the Renaissance. His exploits are documented in his legendary anatomical text De humani corporis fabrica. Remarkable success of De humani encouraged noted anatomists to publish their own texts over the years. Such a cascading effect started an ongoing process of refining the text based presentation of anatomical details that eventually led to the emanation of Gray's Anatomy, the masterpiece from Henry Gray. In this review article we have tried to revisit the journey from De humani to Gray's Anatomy and have also highlighted on other anatomical texts that form important landmarks in this journey. The article attempts to focus on the rectification of Galenic errors, description of new discoveries in human anatomy, introduction of the concept of clinical anatomy, emergence of surgical anatomy and the advent of sectional anatomy. The article also put emphasis on the efforts to make anatomical illustrations used in texts more scientific and in tune with the printed matter. We noted with interest that luminary anatomists over the years have contributed in their own individual manner towards the development of text based anatomy and from cumulative perspective their visionary efforts have shaped the outlook of anatomical texts in present times.]]>
Anatomists ; Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Europe ; Humans

Sectional anatomy is the course to learn anatomical structures on the sectional planes of cadaver. The purpose of this research is to make browsing software of the serially sectioned images, which is useful not only to learn sectional anatomy but also to learn magnetic resonance (MR) images and computed tomography (CT) images. One-thousand seven-hundred two sets of corresponding anatomical, MR, CT, and segmented images (intervals 1 mm) were selected from the serially sectioned images (horizontal direction) of a Korean male cadaver's whole body. We composed browsing software (file size 377 MBytes) of the images, which involved the following functions: The anatomical, MR, CT, and segmented images, which were always corresponding, were displayed; one of four images could be enlarged; images of interesting levels could be displayed in a real time conveniently either using software buttons, scroll bar, image number or using computer keyboard; names of the 13 anatomical structures, which were already segmented, could be displayed. By using this software, medical students and doctors can figure out stereoscopic anatomical structures from the anatomical images to review anatomy; they can compare MR and CT images with corresponding anatomical images to easily recognize anatomical structures in the MR and CT images.
Anatomy, Cross-Sectional* ; Cadaver ; Humans ; Learning* ; Male ; Students, Medical

Normal sectional anatomy of the calcaneus with multiplanar CT examination was studied in 5 volunteers as thebackground for interpretation of various abnormalities. Major 3 sectional anatomy including plantar, coronal,sagittal and additional tuberosity planes are described. With CT examination of the calcaneus, 1. More detailedanatomy of 3 facets of subtalar joint(anterior, middle, and posterior facet) can be well visualized. 2. Itsclinical applications in the tarsal trauma, tarsal coalition, subtalar infectin, degenerative arthritis, clubfoot, pes planus and tarsal tumor could provide much more informations, which not obtained by conventionalradiographic studies.
Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Calcaneus ; Clubfoot ; Flatfoot ; Osteoarthritis ; Volunteers

OBJECTIVETo build three-dimensional (3-D) visible model for surgical treatment of infection of fascial spaces of hand.

METHODSSerial thin cross-sections (0.2 mm) of hand were made by cryomicrotome, and the thin cross-sections of metacarpal parts were observed. A personal computer was employed to reconstruct 3-D model of metacarpal fascial space.

RESULTSThe shapes, locations and adjacent relations of the mid-palmar space, thenar space and metacarpal bones were displayed clearly from computerized 3-D model, which could be the cross-reference of the cross-sections expediently.

CONCLUSIONThe computerized 3-D reconstruction of metacarpal fascial spaces can provide some guidance for surgical treatment of infection and other diseases of metacarpal fascial spaces.

Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Hand ; anatomy & histology ; Humans ; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional

OBJECTIVETo observe the normal structure of lumbar plexus in the virtual Chinese Human (VCH) Female I and Male III and establish a digitized visible model of their lumbar plexus.

METHODSThe cross-sectional images from the VCH Female I and Male III dataset were reviewed to study lumbar plexus structures on a section-by-section basis. The nerve roots, major psoas muscle and blood vessels were also observed. Three-dimensional computerized reconstructions of lumbar plexus and its adjacent structures were conducted from these data using Amira 3.1 (TGS) imaging software respectively.

RESULTSThe three-dimensional reconstructed visible models perfectly displayed the anatomic relationships of lumbar plexus structures and their adjacent structures.

CONCLUSIONSVCH Female I and Male III dataset can provide complete and accurate data of main structure of lumbar plexus. The digitized models of lumbar plexus offer unique insights into the complex anatomy, and morphologic data for imaging diagnosis and treatment of the injury of lumbar plexus.

Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Female ; Humans ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional ; Lumbosacral Plexus ; anatomy & histology ; Male ; Models, Anatomic ; Visible Human Projects

OBJECTIVETo study digitized virtual hepatic three-dimensional reconstruction and virtual hepatic surgery.

METHODSThe whole series of hepatic images taken from the database of digitized Virtual Chinese Human Female Number 1 (VCH-F1) was employed to reconstruct a three-dimensional (3D) liver. First, studied some algorithms for registration of human liver tissue images, and then, segmented the regions of liver, vein, bile duct, and gallbladder from the images. Based on them, the 3D visualization human liver model was reconstructed. Finally, a 3D visualization demo system of liver was developed based on personal computer and Windows operation system.

RESULTSThis demo system of liver provided a graphics user interface to rotate, scale the 3D liver to observe the 3D hepatic structure, and a virtual liver simulation system of resection with primary function.

CONCLUSIONSThe study may be beneficial to the future research on digitized virtual hepatic and virtual hepatic surgery, and the 3D visualization demo system of liver may be beneficial to the research on the hepatic structure.

Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; China ; Female ; Hepatectomy ; Humans ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional ; methods ; Liver ; anatomy & histology ; User-Computer Interface

INTRODUCTION: To correct the facial asymmetry by mandibular jaw surgery, it is important to know the anatomy of the mandible including the mandibular canal positioning of patients with facial asymmetry. This study was performed to evaluate the differences in the cross-sectional surface in the body of the mandible between the deviated side and opposite side in patients with facial asymmetry. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was conducted on 37 adult patients composed of 2 groups, the asymmetry group (n=20) and non-asymmetry group (n=17). Using the cross-sectional computed tomography (CT) images, the distance from the buccal aspect of the mandibular canal to the outer aspect of the buccal cortex, distance from the buccal aspect of the mandibular canal to the inner aspect of the buccal cortex, distance from the inferior aspect of the mandibular canal to the inferior border of the mandible, thickness of the mandible, and cross-sectional surface area of the mandible were measured in each side of the mandible. RESULTS: The cross-sectional area of the mandible including the mandibular canal positioning in the deviated side was not statistically different from the opposite side in the asymmetry group. Only the distance from the inferior aspect of the mandibular canal to the inferior border of the mandible in the ramus area of the deviated side was significantly longer than opposite side. On the other hand, the bucco-lingual width of the asymmetry group was thinner than the non-asymmetry group. CONCLUSION: The cross-sectional area including the mandibular canal of the mandible did not appear to be modified by the facial asymmetry.
Adult ; Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Facial Asymmetry ; Hand ; Humans ; Mandible ; Mandibular Nerve ; Orthognathic Surgery

For the surgical approach to lesions around the cavernous sinus (CS), triangular spaces around CS have been devised. However, educational materials for learning the triangles were insufficient. The purpose of this study is to present educational materials about the triangles, consisting of a schematic diagram and 3-dimensional (3D) models with sectioned images. To achieve the purposes, other studies were analyzed to establish new definitions and names of the triangular spaces. Learning materials including schematic diagrams and 3D models with cadaver's sectioned images were manufactured. Our new definition was attested by observing the sectioned images and 3D models. The triangles and the four representative surgical approaches were stereoscopically indicated on the 3D models. All materials of this study were put into Portable Document Format file and were distributed freely at our homepage (anatomy.dongguk.ac.kr/triangles). By using our schematic diagram and the 3D models with sectioned images, ten triangles and the related structures could be understood and observed accurately. We expect that our data will contribute to anatomy education, surgery training, and radiologic understanding of the triangles and related structures.
Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Carotid Artery, Internal ; Cavernous Sinus* ; Education ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional ; Learning ; Microsurgery ; Neuroanatomy

BACKGROUND: The sectioned images of a cadaver head made from the Visible Korean project have been used for research and educational purposes. However, the image resolution is insufficient to observe detailed structures suitable for experts. In this study, advanced sectioned images with higher resolution were produced for the identification of more detailed structures. METHODS: The head of a donated female cadaver was scanned for 3 Tesla magnetic resonance images and diffusion tensor images (DTIs). After the head was frozen, the head was sectioned serially at 0.04-mm intervals and photographed repeatedly using a digital camera. RESULTS: On the resulting 4,000 sectioned images (intervals and pixel size, 0.04 mm³; color depth, 48 bits color; a file size, 288 Mbytes), minute brain structures, which can be observed not on previous sectioned images but on microscopic slides, were observed. The voxel size of this study (0.04 mm³) was very minute compared to our previous study (0.1 mm³; resolution, 4,368 × 2,912) and Visible Human Project of the USA (0.33 mm³; resolution, 2,048 × 2,048). Furthermore, the sectioned images were combined with tractography of the DTIs to elucidate the white matter with high resolution and the actual color of the tissue. CONCLUSION: The sectioned images will be used for diverse research, including the applications for the cross sectional anatomy and three-dimensional models for virtual experiments.
Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Brain ; Cadaver ; Diffusion ; Diffusion Tensor Imaging ; Female ; Head ; Humans ; White Matter

Stereoscopic surface models of human organs can be manipulated in real time. This is a significant feature of an interactive simulation system used for clinical practice. Objective surface models are obtainable from the accumulation of each structure's serial outlines, followed by surface reconstruction. The segmented images including the outlines can be divided into outlined images, white-filled images, and color-filled images. The purpose of this study was to report the benefits of the three types of segmented images for surface reconstruction. For the raw data, sectioned images of a male cadaver head were used. In the sectioned images, 91 structures were delineated for the preparation of 234 serial outlined images. The outlined images were converted into white-filled and color-filled images; the reverse conversion was also possible. The outlined images, including the original sectioned images, could be the source not only of surface models but also of volume models. The white-filled images, with a minimal file size, were preferred for separate surface reconstruction of the individual structures. The color-filled images, which allowed for recognition of the entire outlined structures simultaneously, were regarded as a good choice for the construction of several surface models. For the process, we employed a variety of software packages including those for animation, where the images were compatible. This information can be used by other investigators to build their own three-dimensional models. In addition, the surface models of detailed structures in the head, accompanied by the corresponding sectioned and segmented images, will hopefully contribute to various simulations that can be useful to clinicians.
Anatomy, Cross-Sectional ; Cadaver ; Head ; Humans ; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional ; Male ; Models, Anatomic ; Research Personnel