Nipah virus (NiV) is a member of the genus Henipavirus of the family Paramyxoviridae, characterized by high pathogenicity and endemic in South Asia. It is classified as a Biosafety Level-4 (BSL-4) agent. The case-fatality varies from 40% to 70% depending on the severity of the disease and on the availability of adequate healthcare facilities. At present no antiviral drugs are available for NiV disease and the treatment is just supportive. Phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses can be used to help in understanding the epidemiology and the temporal origin of this virus. This review provides an overview of evolutionary studies performed on Nipah viruses circulating in different countries. Thirty phylogenetic studies have been published from 2000 to 2015 years, searching on pub-med using the key words ‘Nipah virus AND phylogeny’ and twenty-eight molecular epidemiological studies from 2006 to 2015 have been performed, typing the key words ‘Nipah virus AND molecular epidemiology’. Overall data from the published study demonstrated as phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis represent promising tools to evidence NiV epidemics, to study their origin and evolution and finally to act with effective preventive measure.

Objective To estimate the genetic diversity of Kokobera virus, the date of origin and the spread among different viruses in the endemic regions of Australia. Methods Two datasets were built. The first consisting of 29 sequences of the NS5/3′ UTR region of Kokobera group downloaded from GenBank, the second including only 24 sequences of Kokobera viruses, focus is on this group. Results Bayesian time analysis revealed two different entries in Australia of Kokobera virus in the 50s years with the dated ancestor in 1861 year. Clades A and B showed a clear separation of the Kokobera sequences according to the geographic region. Conclusions Data from the study showed as Kokobera virus, despite of its ancient origin and its circulation before the European colonization, remained limited to the Australian country and nowadays limited mostly to the regions were Australian marsupials are mostly found.

Chikungunya virus is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus that causes chikungunya fever, a febrile illness associated with severe arthralgia and rash. Chikungunya virus is transmitted by culicine mosquitoes; Chikungunya virus replicates in the skin, disseminates to liver, muscle, joints, lymphoid tissue and brain, presumably through the blood. Phylogenetic studies showed that the Indian Ocean and the Indian subcontinent epidemics were caused by two different introductions of distinct strains of East/Central/South African genotype of CHIKV. The paraphyletic grouping of African CHIK viruses supports the historical evidence that the virus was introduced into Asia from Africa. Phylogenetic analysis divided Chikungunya virus isolates into three distinct genotypes based on geographical origins: the first, the West Africa genotype, consisted of isolates from Senegal and Nigeria; the second contained strains from East/Central/South African genotype, while the third contained solely Asian. The most recent common ancestor for the recent epidemic, which ravaged Indian Ocean islands and Indian subcontinent in 2004 - 2007, was found to date in 2002. Asian lineage dated about 1952 and exhibits similar spread patterns of the recent Indian Ocean outbreak lineage, with successive epidemics detected along an eastward path. Asian group splitted into two clades: an Indian lineage and a south east lineage. Outbreaks of Chikungunya virus fever in Asia have not been associated necessarily with outbreaks in Africa. Phylogenetic tools can reconstruct geographic spread of Chikungunya virus during the epidemics wave. The good management of patients with acute Chikungunya virus infection is essential for public health in susceptible areas with current Aedes spp activity.

Objective To investigate the genetic diversity of Zika Virus (ZIKV) and the relationships existing among these circulating viruses worldwide. To evaluate the genetic polymorphisms harbored from ZIKV that can have an influence on the virus circulation. Methods Three different ZIKV dataset were built. The first dataset included 63 E gene sequences, the second one 22 NS3 sequences and the third dataset was composed of 108 NS5 gene sequences. Phylogenetic and selective pressure analysis was performed. The edited nucleic acid alignment from the Envelope dataset was used to generate a conceptual translation to the corresponding peptide sequences through UGene software. Results The phylogeographic reconstruction was able to discriminate unambiguously that the Brazilian strains are belonged to the Asian lineage. The structural analysis reveals instead the presence of the Ser residue in the Brazilian sequences (however already observed in other previously reported ZIKV infections) that could suggest the presence of a neutralization-resistant population of viruses. Conclusions Phylogenetic, evolutionary and selective pressure analysis contributed to improve the knowledge on the circulation of ZIKV.

Objective: To explore the genetic diversity and the modification of antibody response in the recent outbreak of Ebola Virus. Methods: Sequences retrieved from public databases, the selective pressure analysis and the homology modeling based on the all protein (nucleoprotein, VP35, VP40, soluble glycoprotein, small soluble glycoprotein, VP30, VP24 and polymerase) were used. Results: Structural proteins VP24, VP30, VP35 and VP40 showed relative conserved sequences making them suitable target candidates for antiviral treatment. On the contrary, nucleoprotein, polymerase and soluble glycoprotein have high mutation frequency. Conclusions: Data from this study point out important aspects of Ebola virus sequence variability that for epitope and vaccine design should be considered for appropriate targeting of conserved protein regions.

Objective: To study the genetic diversity of Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Methods: MVEV envelope gene sequences were aligned using Clustal X and manual editing was performed with Bioedit. ModelTest v. 3.7 was used to select the simplest evolutionary model that adequately fitted the sequence data. Maximum likelihood analysis was performed using PhyML. The phylogenetic signal of the dataset was investigated by the likelihood mapping analysis. The Bayesian phylogenetic tree was built using BEAST. Results: The phylogenetic trees showed two main clades. The clade I including eight strains isolated from West Australia. The clade II was characterized by at least four epidemic entries, three of which localized in Northern West Australia and one in Papua New Guinea. The estimated mean evolutionary rate value of the MVEV envelope gene was 0.407 × 10