Since the first case of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in Guinea was reported in March 2014 by World Health Organization (WHO), the outbreak has continued through the year and the total number of 19,065 patients was reported as the confirmed or suspected in the EVD-affected countries. Among the cases, 7,388 patients were reported death by 19 December. Currently, available therapeutics to treat the infected patients or vaccines to prevent people from infection is not developed yet while viral diagnostic methods were already developed and firmly established in a lot of countries as a first step for the preparedness of Ebola outbreak. Some potential therapeutic materials including ZMapp were supplied and the treated people got over the EVD. Several candidates of vaccines also were investigated their efficacy in animal models by National Institute of Health (NIH) and Department of Defense, and they are processing of clinical tests in West Africa aiming to finish the development by the 2015. Vaccine and therapeutic development is essential to stop the EVD outbreak in West Africa, also to protect the world from the risk which can be generated by potential spread of Ebola virus.
Africa, Western ; Ebolavirus ; Guinea ; Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola ; Humans ; Models, Animal ; Vaccines ; World Health Organization

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to extend an epidemiological model (SEIHFR) to analyze epidemic trends, and evaluate intervention efficacy. METHODS: SEIHFR was modified to examine disease transmission dynamics after vaccination for the Ebola outbreak. Using existing data from Liberia, sensitivity analysis of various epidemic scenarios was used to inform the model structure, estimate the basic reproduction number ℜ₀ and investigate how the vaccination could effectively change the course of the epidemic. RESULTS: If a randomized mass vaccination strategy was adopted, vaccines would be administered prophylactically or as early as possible (depending on the availability of vaccines). An effective vaccination rate threshold for Liberia was estimated as 48.74% among susceptible individuals. If a ring vaccination strategy was adopted to control the spread of the Ebola virus, vaccines would be given to reduce the transmission rate improving the tracing rate of the contact persons of an infected individual. CONCLUSION: The extended SEIHFR model predicted the total number of infected cases, number of deaths, number of recoveries, and duration of outbreaks among others with different levels of interventions such as vaccination rate. This model may be used to better understand the spread of Ebola and develop strategies that may achieve a disease-free state.
Africa, Western ; Basic Reproduction Number ; Disease Outbreaks ; Ebolavirus ; Humans ; Liberia ; Mass Vaccination ; Vaccination ; Vaccines

The 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in West Africa, caused by Ebola virus (Zaire Ebola virus species), is the largest outbreak of EVD in history. It cause hemorrhagic fever in human and nonhuman primates with high mortality rate up to 90% and can be transmitted by direct contact with blood, body fluids, skin of EVD patients or persons who have died of EVD. As of December 17, 2014, 450 healthcare personnel are known to have been infected with Ebola, of whom 244 died. For development of Ebola vaccine and treatment are highly difficult due to its dangerous and accessibility that requires biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) to conduct experiment. Also there is no specific vaccine and treatment for Ebola virus; however, many candidate vaccines and antiviral-drugs such as ZMapp and TKM-Ebola are being developed for Ebola virus disease. In this review, we focus on the epidemiology of 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus and candidate agent for preventing and curing from Ebola virus.
Africa, Western* ; Body Fluids ; Delivery of Health Care ; Ebolavirus* ; Epidemiology ; Fever ; Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola ; Humans ; Mortality ; Primates ; Skin ; Vaccines

BACKGROUND: Travel-related risks for infectious diseases vary depending on travel patterns such as purpose, destination, and duration. In this study, we describe the patterns of travel and prescription of vaccines as well as malaria prophylaxis medication (MPM) at a travel clinic in South Korea to identify the gaps to fill for the optimization of pre-travel consultation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cohort of travel clinic visitors in 2011 was constructed and early one-third of the visitors of each month were reviewed. During the study period, 10,009 visited the travel clinic and a retrospective chart review was performed for 3,332 cases for analysis of travel patterns and prescriptions. RESULTS: People receiving yellow fever vaccine (YFV) (n = 2,933) were traveling more frequently for business and tourism and less frequently for providing non-medical service or research/education compared to the 399 people who did not receive the YFV. Overall, most people were traveling to Eastern Africa, South America, and Western Africa, while South-Eastern Asia was the most common destination for the non-YFV group. Besides YFV, the typhoid vaccine was the most commonly prescribed (54.2%), while hepatitis A presented the highest coverage (74.7%) considering the natural immunity, prior and current vaccination history. Additionally, 402 (82.5%) individuals received a prescription for MPM among the 487 individuals travelling to areas with high-risk of malaria infection. Age over 55 was independently associated with receiving MPM prescription, while purpose of providing service and travel duration over 10 days were associated with no MPM prescription, despite travelling to high-risk areas. CONCLUSION: Eastern Africa and South America were common travel destinations among the visitors to a travel clinic for YFV, and most of them were travelling for tourism and business. For the individuals who are traveling to areas with high-risk for malaria, more proactive approach might be required in case of younger age travelers, longer duration, and travel purpose of providing service to minimize the risk of malaria infection.
Africa, Eastern ; Africa, Western ; Antibiotic Prophylaxis ; Asia ; Cohort Studies ; Commerce ; Communicable Diseases ; Hepatitis A ; Immunity, Innate ; Korea* ; Malaria ; Prescriptions* ; Retrospective Studies ; South America ; Travel Medicine ; Typhoid-Paratyphoid Vaccines ; Vaccination* ; Vaccines ; Yellow Fever Vaccine ; Yellow Fever*

In Korea, the majority of imported malaria cases are Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum, but Plasmodium ovale cases are rarely reported. We describe an imported case of P. ovale that was confirmed by peripheral blood smear and nested PCR targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene. A 37-yr-old male had visited the Republic of Ghana in tropical West Africa 3 months ago, and suffered from fever and headache since 2 weeks after his return to Korea. The results of rapid malaria test using SD Malaria Antigen/Antibody Kit (Standard Diagnostics, Korea) were negative, but Plasmodium species was observed in Wright-Giemsa-stained peripheral blood smear. For the evaluation of possible mixed infection and identification of species, we performed a nested PCR targeting the SSU rRNA gene. P. ovale single infection was confirmed by PCR. The sequence analysis of the P. ovale SSU rRNA gene showed that our isolate was P. ovale classic type. We should confirm P. ovale infection for an accurate diagnosis and treatment of imported malaria cases in Korea because the number of travelers to P. ovale-endemic regions has recently increased.
Africa, Western ; Coinfection ; Fever ; Genes, rRNA ; Ghana ; Headache ; Humans ; Korea ; Malaria ; Male ; Plasmodium ; Plasmodium ovale ; Plasmodium vivax ; Polymerase Chain Reaction ; RNA, Ribosomal ; Sequence Analysis

Recently, the number of Korean travelers and workers to malaria-endemic regions has increased, and the number of patients with imported malaria cases has increased as well. In Korea, most cases of imported malaria infections are caused by Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax. Only one report of imported P. malariae infection has been published thus far. Here, we describe a case of imported P. malariae infection that was confirmed by peripheral blood smear and nested PCR targeting the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene. A 53-yr-old man, who had stayed in the Republic of Guinea in tropical West Africa for about 40 days, experienced fever and headache for 3 days before admission. The results of rapid malaria test using the SD Malaria Antigen/Antibody Kit (Standard Diagnostics, Korea) were negative, but Wright-Giemsa stained peripheral blood smear revealed Plasmodium. To identify the Plasmodium species and to examine if the patient had a mixed infection, we performed nested PCR targeting the SSU rRNA gene. P. malariae single infection was confirmed by nested PCR. Sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA gene of P. malariae showed that the isolated P. malariae was P. malariae type 2. Thus, our findings suggest that when cases of imported malaria infection are suspected, infection with P. malariae as well as P. falciparum and P. vivax should be considered. For the accurate diagnosis and treatment of imported malaria cases, we should confirm infection with Plasmodium species by PCR as well as peripheral blood smear and rapid malaria antigen test.
Africa, Western ; Coinfection ; Diagnosis ; Fever ; Genes, rRNA ; Guinea* ; Headache ; Humans ; Korea ; Malaria ; Plasmodium ; Plasmodium falciparum ; Plasmodium malariae* ; Polymerase Chain Reaction ; RNA, Ribosomal ; Sequence Analysis

Zaire Ebola virus (EBOV) is a fatal human pathogen, with a high case fatality rate (CFR) averaging up to 78%. In March 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) was made aware of a ZEBOV outbreak in rural Guinea, West Africa. Epidemiologic investigation linked the clinical and laboratory confirmed cases with the presumed first fatality of the outbreak in December 2013. EBOV from Guinea is a separate clade from other ZEBOV strains reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Gabon. Since the outbreak in March, ZEBOV was also reported in Conakry, Guinea's capital and spread to other neighboring countries. In its largest outbreak, ZEBOV disease expanded through Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria and to Spain, the USA, and the UK. The WHO declared the 2013-2015 West African Ebola epidemic a public health emergency of international concern considering its presumable capacity for further international spread. Early manifestations of EVD (Ebola virus disease) include a high fever, body aches, malaise, and fatigue. Severe diarrhea and other gastrointestinal manifestations such as vomiting were common, while bleeding was a more sporadic finding. The fatality rate was 43% and highest in patients aged > or = 45 years and the overall fitted mean incubation period was 10.3 days (95% CI 9.9~10.7). We present a review of the literature on the emergence of Ebola, and the epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory records of patients in whom EVD was diagnosed in Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, the USA, and Spain, its zoonotic origin, and the transmission of ZEBOV, as well as presenting original literature on the current Ebola outbreak.
Africa, Western* ; Congo ; Diarrhea ; Ebolavirus ; Emergencies ; Epidemiology ; Fatigue ; Fever ; Gabon ; Guinea ; Hemorrhage ; Humans ; Liberia ; Mali ; Mortality ; Nigeria ; Public Health ; Sierra Leone ; Spain ; Vomiting ; World Health Organization

Ebola virus disease (hereafter Ebola) has a high fatality rate; currently lacks a treatment or vaccine with proven safety and efficacy, and thus many people fear this infection. As of August 13, 2014, 2,127 patients across four West African countries have been infected with the Ebola virus over the past nine months. Among these patients, approximately 1 in 2 has subsequently died from the disease. In response, the World Health Organization has declared the Ebola outbreak in West Africa to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. However, Ebola is only transmitted by patients who already present symptoms of the disease, and infection only occurs upon direct contact with the blood or body fluids of an Ebola patient. Consequently, transmission of the outbreak can be contained through careful monitoring for fever among persons who have visited, or come into contact with persons from, the site of the outbreak. Thus, patients suspected of presenting symptoms characteristic of Ebola should be quarantined. To date, South Korea is not equipped with the special containment clinical units and biosafety level 4 facilities required to contain the outbreak of a fatal virus disease, such as Ebola. Therefore, it is necessary for South Korea to make strategies to the outbreak by using present facilities as quickly as possible. It is also imperative that the government establish suitable communication with its citizens to prevent the spread of uninformed fear and anxiety regarding the Ebola outbreak.
Africa, Western ; Anxiety ; Body Fluids ; Containment of Biohazards ; Ebolavirus ; Emergencies ; Fever ; Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola ; Humans ; Korea ; Public Health ; Virus Diseases ; World Health Organization

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an acute, febrile zoonotic disease that is caused by the RVF virus (RVFV). RVF is mainly prevalent on the Arabian Peninsula, the African continent, and several islands in the Indian Ocean near southeast Africa. RVFV has been classified by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) as a category A pathogen. To avoid biological safety concerns associated with use of the pathogen in RVFV neutralization assays, the present study investigated and established an RVFV pseudovirus-based neutralization assay. This study used the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) lentiviral packaging system and RVFV structural proteins to successfully construct RVFV pseudoviruses. Electron microscopy observation and western blotting indicated that the size, structure, and shape of the packaged pseudoviruses were notably similar to those of HIV lentiviral vectors. Infection inhibition assay results showed that an antibody against RVFV inhibited the infective ability of the RVFV pseudoviruses, and an antibody neutralization assay for RVFV detection was then established. This study has successfully established a neutralization assay based on RVFV pseudoviruses and demonstrated that this method can be used to effectively evaluate antibody neutralization.
Africa ; Animals ; Blotting, Western ; HIV ; Indian Ocean ; Islands ; Methods ; Microscopy, Electron ; Product Packaging ; Rift Valley fever virus ; Rift Valley Fever ; Zoonoses

This study investigated the extent to which recourse to traditional healers depended on biometric variables; ways of knowing in good time what ailments were more likely to be better handled by traditional healers; rationale behind traditional healing methodologies. On the whole, four research questions were engaged. The sample for the study included residents in urban (Benin City) and rural (Ehime Mbano) communities in Nigeria. The instruments comprised of two questionnaires. The traditional healers were also interviewed in addition. The findings of the research included the following: in both rural and urban areas, women and more elderly persons had more recourse than other groups to traditional medicine; Christians, less educated persons, self-employed persons and women affirmed most strongly to the efficacy of traditional medicine over Western medicine with respect to certain ailments; ways for averting spiritual illnesses included obeying instructions from ancestors and offering regular sacrifices to the gods; methods used by traditional healers to determine whether an ailment was "spiritual" or as a result of home problems included diagnosis linked to divination, interpretation of dreams particularly those involving visits by ancestors, interpretation of nightmares and omens such as the appearance of owls; methods for curing patients included use of herbs particularly those believed to have magical powers, offering of sacrifices, use of incantations and wearing of protective medicine.
Adult ; Africa, Western ; Aged ; Aged, 80 and over ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Medicine, African Traditional ; methods ; psychology ; utilization ; Metaphysics ; Middle Aged ; Mind-Body Relations, Metaphysical ; physiology ; Nigeria ; Rural Population ; statistics & numerical data ; Social Values ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Virtues