Phthalate esters (PAEs)are by far the most widely used plasticisers and are categorized as high and low,depending on their molecular weight.Because of their extensive use,humans are most likely exposed to PAEs in the workplace and home environment through direct as well as indirect sources.Injection,inhalation,intravenous injection and skin absorption are potential pathways of expo-sure.With respect to health effects,phthalates are often classified as endocrine disruptors because of their ability to interfere with the endocrine syste m in the body.Furthermore,PAEs possess reproductive toxicity because of their influence on development of the reproductive system in infancy and development and differentiation of germ cells in adults.PAEs promote pathogenesis and development of liver cancer by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)and DNA methylation.In addition, PAEs,which inhibit the i mmune functions of macrophages and pro mote hypersensitive response,pos-sess immunotoxicity.PAEs are also carcinogens that promote pathogenesis and development of cancers including breast,ovarian and so me other cancers.