Microglia cells are immune cells in the central nervous system.When the microenvironment of brain has changed,microglia will respond rapidly.ATP,UTP,or other nucleotide signals released by neurons from damaged site and their metabolites such as ADP,adenosine,UDP and so on will bind with the purinergic receptors on microglia to regulate the morphology and function of microglia,then the microglial cells activated by nucleotide signals are to regulate neural cells by phagocytosis or releasing cytokines.In this article,the function and corresponding mechanisms of nucleotide signals on chemotaxis,phagocytosis,and process retraction are reviewed.

The aim of the study is to investigate the effect of nardosinone (Nar) on neuronal injury induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in primary cortical cultures isolated from embryos at gestational day 14. MTT method was used to determine the dosage regimen of Nar in primary neuronal cultures and observe the influence of Nar on the neurons suffering OGD; Western blotting analysis was used to detect expressions of protein kinase A (PKA), Ras related protein 1 (Rap1), mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 (MEK1) and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2) of OGD-injured or uninjured primary cultured neurons after Nar treatment. Results showed that Nar (50 and 100 micromol x L(-1)) improved the cell viability during OGD damage (P < 0.01) and increased the expression of PKA, Rap1, MEK1 and p-ERK1/2 in injured neurons. Additionally, elevations of PKA, Rapl, MEK1 and p-ERK1/2 in uninjured neurons were caused by Nar (50, 100 and 200 micromol x L(-1)) with a dose-dependent tenclency as well (P < 0.01). In conclusion, Nar could protect against the neuronal injury exposed to OGD, which may be relevant to the promotion of PKA and ERK signaling pathway.

Larvae of Schistosoma japonicum could be blocked in Oncomelania hupensis with pre-infection by larval Exorchis trematodes (Tang et al., 2008, 2009). The present manuscript reports the result of comparison between the two different developments of larval S.japonicum in O.hupensis snails with and without pre-infection by larval Exorchis trematodes. Of 300 (invader rate 26.74%) abnormal larvae of S.japonicum for 4-82 days old were found from 28 (73.7%) O.hupensis snails which were pre-infected with Exorchis eggs, their body structure were unusual and developed astray at early mother sporocyst stage. From 25 (69.4%) O.hupensis snails without pre- infection by larval Exorchis, 67 (invader rate 13.96%) normal mother sporocysts of S.japonicum for 5-61 days old in different development stages and many early or middle stage daughter sporocysts were found, in the 75th day after infection many mature daughter sporocysts and cercariae of S.japonicum were found. Different increase of lymphocyte in body tissues of snails were found from the two experimental O.hupensis snail groups.

The aim of the study is to investigate the effect of salvianolic acid B (SalB) on blood-brain barrier (BBB) in rats after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, and to illustrate its possible mechanisms. Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. The break-down of BBB was indicated by extravasations of immunoglobulin (IgG) monitored with immunohistochemistry. The expression of MMP-9 and NOS2 in the brain was determined by immunohistochemistry, and the expression of p-p38 and p-ERK1/2 was detected by Western blotting. It was shown that on day 2 after ischemia-reperfusion the IgG accumulated around the vascular boundary zone, suggesting the break-down of BBB, and the expression of MMP-9 and NOS2 up-regulated at the same time. The result of Western blotting suggested that the expression of p-p38 and p-ERK1/2 increased. On day 7 after ischemia-reperfusion the. expression of MMP-9 and NOS2 was about the same level as day 2, the expression of p-p38 was higher than that on day 2 and the expression of p-ERK1/2 was slightly lower than that on day 2. SalB (1 and 10 mg x kg(-1)) significantly alleviated the extravasations of immunoglobulin induced by cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (P < 0.05). On day 2 and day 7 SalB attenuated the expression of MMP-9 and NOS2 (P < 0.05). SalB (10 mg x kg(-1)) reduced the expression of p-p38 and p-ERK1/2 apparently on day 2 and 7 after ischemia-reperfusion (P < 0.05). SalB (1 mg x kg(-1)) inhibited the expression of p-p38 on day 7 after ischemia-reperfusion (P < 0.05). The results indicate that SalB protects blood-brain barrier in rats after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion by inhibiting the MAPK pathway.

Objectives: To investigate whether the protective actions of ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) on astrocytes are mediated through the Gs-type G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR-Gs). Methods: Primary astrocyte cultures derived from neonatal mouse brain were used. Astrocyte injury was induced via oxygen-glucose deprivation/re-oxygenation (OGD/R). Cell morphology, viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage, apoptosis, glutamate uptake, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) secretion were assessed to gauge cell survival and functionality. Western blot was used to investigate the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways. GPCR-Gs-specific inhibitors and molecular docking were used to identify target receptors. Results: Rb1 at concentrations ranging from 0.8 to 5 μM did not significantly affect the viability, glutamate uptake, or BDNF secretion in normal astrocytes. OGD/R reduced astrocyte viability, increasing their LDH leakage and apoptosis rate. It also decreased glutamate uptake and BDNF secretion by these cells. Rb1 had protective effects of astrocytes challenged by OGD/R, by improving viability, reducing apoptosis, and enhancing glutamate uptake and BDNF secretion. Additionally, Rb1 activated the cAMP and Akt pathways in these cells. When the GPCR-Gs inhibitor NF449 was introduced, the protective effects of Rb1 completely disappeared, and its activation of cAMP and Akt signaling pathways was significantly inhibited. Conclusion Rb1 protects against astrocytes from OGD/R-induced injury through GPCR-Gs mediation.

Rooibos, Aspalathus linearis (Barm.f.) R. Dahlgren, is a South African endemic plant. Modern researches have shown that its leaves and branches are rich in polyphenols and specific flavonoids, aspalathin and nothofagin, which have many pharmacological effects on improving oxidative stress and inflammation, reducing blood sugar, protecting liver, resisting cancer and mutagenesis. In this paper, the research progress of Rooibos is summarized which could provide reference for further research and development.

ObjectiveTo observe the protective effect of Rooibos (endemic plant in the South Africa) in mice with cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI).Methods All mice were divided into control group, IRI group, low-dose Rooibos group (low-dose group, 2.8 g/kg), mid-dose Rooibos group (mid-dose group, 5.6 g/kg) and high-dose Rooibos group (high-dose group, 11.2 g/kg).Before modeling, 3 medicated groups were orally given Rooibos once a day for 7 d, and control group and IRI group were given isometric distilled water.After one week, the model was established by using cerebral middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and then all groups were continuously given Rooibos or distilled water for 7 d.The influence of Rooibos on cerebral infarction volume was observed after TTC staining.The influence of Rooibos on movement, cognition and sense was observed after neurologic score test, balance beam test, Morris water maze (MWM) test and corner test.The influence of Rooibos on redox state after cerebral injury was observed after detecting the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidease (GSH-PX), and content of malondialdehyde (MDA).The influence of Rooibos on inflammatory state after cerebral injury was observed after detecting the brain contents of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1).Results The cerebral infarction volume decreased significantly (P<0.05), scores of balance beam test decreased significantly (P<0.01), times from corner to non-injury side decreased significantly (P<0.01), and contents of TNF-α, IL-1β and ICAM-1 decreased significantly (P<0.01 or P<0.05) in 3 Rooibos groups compared with IRI group.Conclusion Rooibos has certain protective effect in mice with cerebral IRI, and the effect may be related to the decrease of inflammation factors in brain tissue.

Objective To compare the protective effects of concentrate granule and ultrafine powder of danshen (Salvia Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizome) on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) injury. Methods Male ICR mice were randomly divided into sham operation group,model group,0.45 g/(kg ·d) danshen concentrate granule group and 2.25 g/(kg·d) danshen ultrafine powder group. CIR model was established by using middle cerebral artery occlusion(MCAO). Weight of mice was monitored throughout the experiment to evaluate their health status. The influence on neurological injury,movement and sensory function was evaluated by using neurologic score test,corner test and grip strength test. The effects of ultrafine powder and concentrate granule on CIR injury were compared using the following parameters:content of water in brain,infraction volume with TTC staining, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) in the brain by using ELISA.Results Compared with CIR model group,the grip strength and body weight improved significantly (P<0.01 or P<0.05) and contents of TNF-α and MPO decreased markedly (P<0.01 or P<0.05) in ultrafine powder group; content of water in brain decreased significantly (P <0.05) in concentrate granule group;cerebral infarction volume decreased markedly (P<0.01) in both danshen groups(P<0.01). Conclusion The danshen concentrate granule and ultrafine powder both have a protective effect on ischemia-reperfusion injury,and their efficacy is similar at the same dosage.

Objective To study the anti-fatigue effects of aqueous extracts from Xianye Jinquehua (Rooibos, Aspalathus Linears) and Zanghonghua (Saffron, Crocus sativus L.) through classic behavior test (loaded swimming) and detections of blood lactic acid, liver glycogen and muscle glycogen.Methods At first 32 mice were randomly divided into blank control group, Xianye Jinquehua group and Zanghonghua group, and were orally given corresponding medicinals once a day.The test of loaded swimming was conducted in all groups after 14 d.Then 46 mice were randomly divided into blank control group and low-dose XianyeJinquehua+Zanghonghua group, and were orally given corresponding medicinals once a day.The test of loaded swimming and detection of blood lactic acid were conducted in all groups after 14 d.According to above test results, 100 mice were randomly divided into blank control group, low-dose Xianye Jinquehua+Zanghonghua group, middose Xianye Jinquehua +Zanghonghua group and high-dose Xianye Jinquehua +Zanghonghua group.After oral medication for 14 d, the content of liver glycogen and muscle glycogen was detected.Results The time of loaded swimming was not improved in Xianye Jinquehuagroup and Zanghonghua group, and it was prolonged (P<0.05) and content of blood lactic acid was decreased (P<0.05) in low-dose Xianye Jinquehua+Zanghonghua group.The content of liver glycogen and muscle glycogen was increased in low-dose Xianye Jinquehua+Zanghonghua group, mid-dose Xianye Jinquehua+Zanghonghua group and high-dose Xianye Jinquehua+Zanghonghua group compared with blank control group (P<0.05 or P<0.01).Conclusion The single administration of single Xianye Jinquehua or single Zanghonghua has no anti-fatigue effect, while combination of them has this effect.

Objective To evaluate the effects of modified Fushen Powder on learning and memory of normal mice and mouse model with impaired learning and memory,so as to provide experimental evidence for treating mild cognitive impairment.Methods Adult Kunming male mice were randomly divided into normal group,model group,positive drug group (piracetam group at dose of 0.6 g/kg), high dose,middle dose and low dose of modified Fushen Powder groups (high-,mid-,low-dose group) at the dose of 5.6,11.2,and 22.4 g/kg respectively.Ethological examination using Morris water maze, locomotor activity system,step-down test and step-through test was used to study the effects of modified Fushen Powder on mice locomotor activities and disorders of memory acquisition,consolidation and retrieval due to chemical substances.And the activities of acetyl cholinesterase (AchE),superoxide dismutase (SOD)and content of malondialdehyde (MDA)in cortex were detected by chromatographic colorimetry.Results Compared with normal group,the mice in both low-dose group and mid-dose group showed significant increasing in exploratory behavior within the first 15 minutes (P <0.01 ),but no difference in the next 15 minutes;furthermore,low-dose and mid-dose Fushen Powder increased the scores of learning and memory.Compared with control group,low,middle,and high dose of Fushen Powder relieved disorder of memory acquisition(P <0.01),in addition,middle dose relieved disorder of memory retrieval (P <0.01)and decreased the activity of AchE(P <0.01 ),increased the activity of SOD (P <0.01 ),and the content of MDA (P <0.01 ).Conclusion The effects of modified Fushen Powder against the disorders of memory acquisition,consolidation and retrieval induced by scopolamine, sodium nitrite and ethanol were proved,with increasing the mice’s exploratory behavior in a novel environment and no obvious influence on their locomotive activity.The mechanism of modified Fushen Powder on antagonizing the memory disorders can be related to its effects of decreasing activity of AchE, content of MDA,and increasing activity of SOD in brain tissues.