Abstract Objective: There have been five documented outbreaks of Ebola Reston virus (RESTV) in animals epidemiologically linked to the Philippines. This assessment was conducted to determine the risk of RESTV occurring in humans in the Philippines and its potential pathogenicity in humans. Methods: The World Health Organization Rapid Risk Assessment of Acute Public Health Events Manual was used for the assessment. A literature review was done and a risk assessment matrix was used for the risk characterization of the outbreaks in the Philippines. The risk assessment was conducted by the Philippines Field Epidemiology Training Program. Results: The risk of RESTV occurring in humans in the Philippines and its potential pathogenicity in humans were both assessed as moderate. Animals involved in RESTV outbreaks in the Philippines were non-human primates and domestic pigs. The presence of RESTV in pigs poses a possibility of genetic evolution of the virus. Although RESTV has been identified in humans, there was no death or illness attributed to the infection. The Philippines Inter-agency Committee on Zoonoses oversees collaboration between the animal and human health sectors for the prevention and control of zoonoses. However, there is no surveillance of risk animals or previously affected farms to monitor and facilitate early identification of cases. Discussion: The moderate risk of RESTV recurring among humans in the Philippines and its potential pathogenicity in humans reinforces the need for early detection, surveillance and continued studies of RESTV pathogenesis and its health consequences. The One Health approach, with the involvement and coordination of public health, veterinary services and the community, is essential in the detection, control and management of zoonosis.

In this report, we sought to demonstrate that freshwater sampling for migrating bird-associated novel respiratory virus incursions is possible and more desirable than the alternative approach of capturing and swabbing wild migrating birds. Freshwater sampling should be considered as an alternative approach for pre-pandemic pathogen surveillance.

Objective: This cross-sectional, prospective surveillance study sought to determine the prevalence of novel respiratory viruses among domestic ducks in Central Luzon that are known to have frequent contact with wild avian species. Such contact may lead to novel virus spillover events that may harm domestic poultry as well as humans. Methods: From March 2019 to January 2020, cross-sectional and prospective surveillance for viruses among domestic ducks (Anas luzonica) was conducted by periodically collecting oropharyngeal swabs from ducks on 54 farms across three municipalities within Central Luzon (Region III). A flock of 30 sentinel domestic ducks was also sampled four times after being confined in the Candaba swamp. The resultant 1740 swab samples were pooled (5 samples/pool, 348 pools) by site and screened with molecular assays for respiratory viruses from multiple viral families. Results: Two farms yielded samples positive for avian influenza virus in Candaba, where adolescent ducks are known to freely mix with wild birds as they graze in rice fields. Overall, the prevalence of avian influenza virus was 2.3% (8/348 pools). Sequencing revealed three pools with highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N6, one with low pathogenicity H5N8, and one with H5 with an unspecified neuraminidase. All the pooled specimens tested were negative for influenza C, adenoviruses, coronaviruses and enteroviruses. Discussion: Although this study had several limitations, it found supportive evidence that domestic ducks are acquiring avian influenza viruses from wild bird species. These findings underscore recommendations that duck farmers should seek to prevent domestic ducks from mixing with wild avian species.