Introduction: Carbohydrate (CHO) mouth rinsing can enhance sports performance through a central action mediated by receptors in the mouth. This study examined the effect of a CHO mouth rinse on salivary lysozyme concentrations, mood states and running performances. Methods: Ten males recreational runners were randomised to three running trials with a 1 week recovery period between the trials. Each trial involved running at 75% maximum heart rate (HRmax) for 1 h, followed by a 15 min time trial. The participants used a CHO mouth rinse, placebo (PLA) solution or control (CON, no solution) every 15 min during the exercise. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and mood states were recorded pre-, during and post-exercise. Saliva samples were collected pre-, post- and 1 h post-exercise. Results: There was no significant interaction and time effect (P > 0.05) on the salivary lysozyme concentration and running performance, but it was significant (P < 0.05) for HR and RPE (increase in all trials). However, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in salivary lysozyme concentrations, running performances, HR values or RPE between the trials. Mood states were not significantly different (P > 0.05) between the trials, but one of the mood sub-scales showed a significant (P < 0.001) time effect (increase fatigue in all trials). Conclusion: CHO mouth rinsing did not affect physiological parameters, salivary lysozyme concentrations, mood states or running performance among recreational runners.

Introduction: The transtheoretical model (TTM) is an integrative model of intentional change consisting of stages of change, processes of change, decisional balance and self-efficacy. This study aimed at validating the TTM questionnaires on physical activity for Malaysian children using confirmatory factor analysis. Methods: The participants were 381 Malay students (188 male; 193 female), aged 10–12 years old, with a mean age of 10.94 (SD = 0.81). The original version of the TTM was translated into the Malay language using forward and backward translation. Certain phrases were adapted based on the local culture and vocabulary suitable for primary school students. Results: The final measurement models and their fit indices were: processes of change (CFI = 0.939, TLI = 0.925, SRMR = 0.040, RMSEA = 0.030); decisional balance (CFI = 0.897, TLI = 0.864, SRMR = 0.045, RMSEA = 0.038); and self-efficacy (CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.915, SRMR = 0.042, RMSEA = 0.032). Conclusion: Care must be taken when using the TTM with children, as it has been prevalently validated with adults. The final version of the TTM questionnaire for Malay primary school children had 24 items for process of changes, 13 items for self-efficacy and 10 items for decisional balance.

Background: Self-efficacy (SE) is a person’s belief in his or her own capability to perform and accomplish a task that could produce a favourable outcome, despite facing obstacles. This study aimed to confirm the validity and reliability of an SE scale among undergraduate students at the Health Campus of the Universiti Sains Malaysia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among the undergraduate students using a self-administered questionnaire. After using a purposive sampling method, 562 students completed the questionnaire. Mplus 8 was employed to conduct the confirmatory factor analysis on the psychometric properties of Bandura’s 18-item SE scale with three factors (internal feeling, competing demands and situational). Then, the composite reliability was calculated for each factor. Results: Most of the students were Malay (73.3%) females (79.0%) who exercised 2.62 times a week for an average of 43.37 min per session. The final measurement model was obtained after removing six problematic items, and the model was deemed fit based on several indices [Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.067, Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.004, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.924]. The composite reliability values of the three factors were acceptable (0.65 to 0.84). Conclusion: The simplified 12-item SE scale with three factors displayed good fit indices with regard to the data, and they were considered to be acceptable for the current sampl

Background: Engaging in regular physical activity (PA) has become a worldwide issue for the prevention of numerous chronic diseases; therefore, is important to increase students’ desires to engage in PA by triggering their motivation. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between the motives for participating in PA and the amount of PA that secondary Chinese school students in Kelantan undertake. Methods: The participants consisted of 304 Chinese secondary school students (males = 165, females = 139) with a mean age of 13.55 years old (SD = 0.57) who volunteered to complete three measures, consisting of a demographic information form, the physical activity and leisure motivation scale for youth-Chinese version (PALMS-Y-C) and the Godin leisure-time exercise questionnaire-Chinese version (GLTEQ-C). Results: There were significant positive correlations between all the seven PA participation motives with amount of exercise (Enjoyment: r = 0.16, P = 0.010; Mastery: r = 0.23, P < 0.001; Competition: r = 0.21, P = 0.001; Affiliation: r = 0.22, P < 0.001; Psychological condition: r = 0.26, P < 0.001; Appearance: r = 0.20, P = 0.001; Physical condition: r = 0.20, P = 0.001). There were also significant mean differences among sweating exercise frequency categories in all the seven areas of PA participation motives (Enjoyment: P = 0.003, Mastery: P < 0.001, Competition: P = 0.001, Affiliation: P = 0.001, Psychological condition: P = 0.038, Appearance = 0.002, Physical condition: P = 0.004). Conclusion: The present study provided insight into how to promote PA in Kelantan Chinese school-aged children by specifically targeting their motives. Interventions targeting these motives could increase the amount of PA among Kelantan Chinese youths.

Understanding the individual aspirations of exercise participation is important for promoting physical activity. However, there is a lack of evidence to validate a measurement instrument for exercise-based goal content among Malaysian populations. The purpose of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of the Malay version of the Goal Content in Exercise Questionnaire (GCEQ) for a sample of Malaysian undergraduates. Methods: The original English version of the GCEQ underwent forward and backward translation into the Malay language. A cross-sectional study was conducted. The finalised Malay version was administered to 674 undergraduate students at the Health Campus of the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) with a mean age of 20.27 years (SD = 1.35 years). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted for the psychometric evaluation. Results: The measurement model consisted of 20 observed items and five latent factors. CFA demonstrated adequate fit to the data: comparative fit index = 0.929; standardised root mean square residual = 0.052; root mean square error of approximation = 0.061 (90% CI = 0.056, 0.067). The composite reliability coefficients for the five latent factors ranged from 0.777 to 0.851. All the correlations between the factors were less than 0.85, so discriminant validity was achieved. Conclusion: The findings suggested that the Malay version of the GCEQ is valid and reliable for assessing goal content in the exercise context of undergraduates at the Health Campus, USM.

Background: The purpose of the study was to compare the motives for participating in physical activity (PA) through the different types of co-curricular activities chosen by health sciences undergraduate students at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia. Methods: The participants were university students at USM’s Health Campus, who were invited to volunteer and complete two measures: a demographic form, including the types of co-curricular activities in which the students chose to enrol (sports, uniform and art), and the Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale (PALMS). Results: A total of 588 university students (female = 79.1%, male = 20.9%) with a mean age of 19.77 (SD = 1.39) participated in the study. The results showed significant differences in the motives of affiliation (P < 0.001), appearance (P = 0.008) and physical condition (P = 0.010) across the types of co-curricular activities in which the students participated. The students who enrolled in sports generally showed higher motives of affiliation, appearance and physical condition for participating in PA than other types of co-curricular activities. Conclusion: The study findings can provide further insights into the motives for participating in PA among health sciences students and encouragement for students to integrate PA into their daily routines.