Menopause is a turning point in women that is based on the sex hormone change. Many women are very conscious about the postmenopausal period. After menopause, women complain about vasomotor symptoms, night sweat, psychological problems, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease and urogenital symptoms. Nowadays, food and alternative treatment for postmenopausal symptoms are introduced. The average life span is now increasing, and postmenopausal care is important for public health. Long chain omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are known as essential fatty acids, however, all mammals, including humans, should obtain them from their diet. Omega-3 fatty acids have emerged as an adjuvant and alternative source for relieving postmenopusal complains or disease. Among alternative treatment or food behavior change for postmenopusal symptoms, we will review the current issues on the relationship between the role and the effect of omega-3 fatty acids in relieving postmenopausal symptoms.
Cardiovascular Diseases ; Diet ; Fatty Acids, Essential ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Female ; Humans ; Mammals ; Menopause ; Osteoporosis ; Postmenopause ; Public Health ; Sweat

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: We examined dietary fat intake and the major food sources by young children in Korea. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 1,041 children aged 1–5 years were identified from the 2013–2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Data on total fat and fatty acid intake were obtained by a single 24-h dietary recall. Food sources were identified based on the amounts of total fat and fatty acids consumption according to each food. Fat and fatty acid intakes and their food sources were presented by age group (1–2-y, n = 401; 3–5-y, n = 640). Fat and fatty acid intakes were also evaluated according to socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: The mean intake of fat was 27.1 ± 0.8 g in the 1-2-y group and 35.5 ± 0.7 g in the 3-5-y group, and about 23% of the total energy was obtained from fat in both age groups. The mean intake of saturated fatty acids (SFA) was 10.5 ± 0.3 g in the 1-2-y group and 12.7 ± 0.3 g in the 3-5-y group, with the 1-2-y group obtaining more energy from SFA than the 3-5-y group (9.2% vs. 8.3%). The mean intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was 6.3 ± 0.1 g in the total subjects, with 0.8 ± 0.03 g of n-3 fatty acids and 5.5 ± 0.1 g of n-6 fatty acids being consumed. Milk, pork, and eggs were major food sources of total fat, SFA, and monounsaturated fatty acids, and soybean oil was the main contributor to PUFA in both age groups. In the 1-2-y group, children in rural areas had significantly higher intake of PUFA and n-3 fatty acids than did those in urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide current information on dietary fat intake among young Korean children and could be used to establish dietary strategies for improvement of health status.
Child* ; Cross-Sectional Studies* ; Dietary Fats ; Eggs ; Fatty Acids* ; Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Fatty Acids, Unsaturated ; Humans ; Korea* ; Milk ; Nutrition Surveys* ; Ovum ; Red Meat ; Soybean Oil

OBJECTIVETo study the effects of different dietary fatty acid on the expression of nuclear receptor genes in the breast cancer of rats.

METHODSFifty-day-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed on eight different diets containing following fatty acids: saturated fatty acid (SFA); monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA); n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA); n-3 PUFA; 1:1 n-6/n-3; 5:1 n-6/n-3; 10:1 n-6/n-3; 1:2:1 S/M/P (n-6/n-3 at 1:1). The rats were given a single intraperitoneal injection of methyl-nitrosourea (MNU) at 50 mg/kg body weight to establish the rat model of mammary carcinogenesis, the ultrastructure changes of mammary gland cells in rats were observed by transmission electron microscope, the cell proliferation activity was detected by BrdU-labeled immunocytochemistry, and the expression of PPARbeta and PPARgamma mRNA were assayed by RT-PCR.

RESULTSThere was no breast cancer occurring in control groups and the MNU-treated n-3 PUFA group, and the ultrastructure and proliferation activity of mammary gland cells in these groups were normal. In contrast, there appeared obvious marker of adenocarcinomas in mammary gland cells of MNU-induced breast cancer, and a high cell proliferation activity was found in tumor growth-enhancing groups (SFA, MUFA, n-6 PUFA, 5:1 n-6/n-3, 10:1 n-6/n-3 and S/M/P, 21% - 22% of BrdU-labeled cells), while a low cell proliferation activity was detected in rats fed with 1:1 n-6/n-3 diet (13% of BrdU-labeled cells, P < 0.05). Moreover, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), as important nuclear receptor genes of relating lipid metabolism, the expressions of PPARbeta and PPARgamma mRNA were significantly up-regulated in mammary adipose tissues of MNU-induced breast cancer as compared with the control groups, but the expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in rats fed with 1:1 n-6/n-3 group were lowest (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONThe different dietary fatty acid compositions should diversely adjust the expression of PPARs gene in rats, which maybe have an important role in affecting incidence of breast cancer.

Animals ; Fatty Acids ; pharmacology ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; pharmacology ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; pharmacology ; Fatty Acids, Unsaturated ; pharmacology ; Female ; Gene Expression ; Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic ; Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental ; genetics ; PPAR gamma ; genetics ; RNA, Messenger ; genetics ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Malnutrition and inflammation are reported as the most powerful predictors of mortality and morbidity in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Diet has a key role in modulating inflammation and dietary inflammatory index (DII) is a new tool for assessment of inflammatory potential of diet. The aim of this study was to evaluate the application of DII on dietary intake of HD patients and examine the associations between DII and malnutrition-inflammation markers. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 105 subjects were recruited for this cross-sectional study. Anthropometric measurements, 3-day dietary recall, and pre-dialysis biochemical parameters were recorded for each subject. Subjective global assessment (SGA), which was previously validated for HD patients, and malnutrition inflammation score (MIS) were used for the diagnosis of protein energy wasting. DII was calculated according to average of 3-day dietary recall data. RESULTS: DII showed significant correlation with reliable malnutrition and inflammation indicators including SGA (r = 0.28, P < 0.01), MIS (r = 0.28, P < 0.01), and serum C-reactive protein (CRP) (r = 0.35, P < 0.001) in HD patients. When the study population was divided into three subgroups according to their DII score, significant increasing trends across the tertiles of DII were observed for SGA score (P = 0.035), serum CRP (P = 0.001), dietary energy (P < 0.001), total fat (P < 0.001), saturated fatty acids (P < 0.001), polyunsaturated fatty acids (P = 0.006), and omega-6 fatty acids (P = 0.01) intakes. CONCLUSION: This study shows that DII is a good tool for assessing the overall inflammatory potential of diet in HD patients.
C-Reactive Protein* ; Cross-Sectional Studies* ; Diagnosis ; Diet ; Dietary Fats ; Fatty Acids ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Fatty Acids, Unsaturated ; Humans ; Inflammation ; Malnutrition ; Mortality ; Renal Dialysis* ; Renal Insufficiency

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between dietary omega-3 fatty acid(n-3PUFA) and omega-6 fatty acids (n-6PUFA) with prostate cancer risk from a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.

DESIGN: Cohort studies that investigated the relationship of dietary omega fatty acids and prostate cancer risk were retrieved from MEDLINE, Unbound MEDLINE, EMBASE, OVID, Cochrane Library and Science direct up to June 2011, and were critically appraised using Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment for cohorts. General variance-based method was used to the pool the effect estimates at 95% confidence interval. Heterogeneity was assessed by chi square and quantified by I2.

RESULTS: Eight cohort studies were included for meta-analysis. n-3PUFA, n-6PUFA and their derivatives were not significantly associated with risk of prostate cancer in general. A significant heterogeneity (P=0.023,I2=63%) between studies was noted. After inter-study variability adjustment was done, repeat analysis showed a significant negative association between high dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid(ALA) and prostate cancer risk (pooled RR:0.915;95% CL:0.849, 0.985;P=0.019) Likewise, a slightly positive association was noted on dietary long chain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA+DHA) and prostate cancer risk (pooled RR: 1.135; 95% CI:1.008, 1.278 P=0.036), however when two other cohort studies with data of EPA and DHA both analyzed separately was included into the pool, the association became not significant (RR=1.034;95%CI:0.973,1.096;P=0.2780).

CONCLUSION: The intake of n-3PUFA and n-6PUFA does not significantly affect the risk of prostate cancer. High intake of ALA may reduce risk of prostate cancer, while intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids does not have a significant effect.

Human ; Male ; Recommended Dietary Allowances ; Nutritional Requirements ; Diet ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; alpha-Linolenic Acid ; Fatty Acids ; Prostatic Neoplasms ; Neoplasms ; Genital Neoplasms, Male ; Risk ; probability

This study evaluated the effect of fish oil rich in n-3 fatty acids on bone characteristics in Sprague-Dawley rats. Weanling male rats were randomized to receive either a diet containing high fish oil (FO), fish oil blended with corn oil (FICO), or soy oil rich in n-6 fatty acids (SO) for 4 weeks. All diets provided 70 g/kg fat based on the AIN-93G diet. Growth and biomarkers of bone metabolism were analyzed, and femur bone characteristics were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. After the dietary treatment, no significant differences among the diet groups were observed for serum concentrations of Ca, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, or osteocalcin. Alkaline phosphatase activity was significantly greater in FO-fed rats compared to that in the FICO and SO groups, whereas no difference in deoxypyridinoline values was observed, supporting the positive effect of a FO diet on bone formation. These results were accompanied by a significant increase in femur bone mineral density (BMD) in FO-fed rats. These findings suggest that providing fish oil rich in n-3 fatty acids correlates with higher alkaline phosphatase activity and BMD values, favoring bone formation in growing rats.
Absorptiometry, Photon ; Alkaline Phosphatase ; Amino Acids ; Animals ; Biomarkers ; Bone Density ; Calcitonin ; Corn Oil ; Diet ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Femur ; Humans ; Male ; Osteocalcin ; Osteogenesis ; Parathyroid Hormone ; Rats ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley

OBJECTIVETo investigate the relationships between erythrocyte membrane n-6:n-3 PUFAs ratio and blood lipids and high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP).

METHODSThe observational study consisted of a population-based cross-sectional study of 456 Chinese and a subsequent 1-year follow-up study of 171 subjects with the fasting plasma total cholesterol of 5.13-8.00 mmol/L.

RESULTSIn the cross-sectional analysis, plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) had a significant and negative association with the erythrocyte membrane n-6:n-3 PUFAs ratio (P for trend=0.019) after adjusting for sex, age and total PUFA percentage. In the follow-up study, 171 subjects were categorized into quartiles by the changes of n-6:n-3 ratio in erythrocyte membrane (Δ=month 12-month 0). In the top quartile whose ratios of n-6:n-3 increased by an average of 1.25 during the follow-up, the LDL-c-lowering extent was 3.3 times of that in the lowest quartile whose ratios of n-6:n-3 decreased by an average of 1.13 (-1.07 mmol/L v.s. -0.32 mmol/L). The hsCRP decreased by 0.11 mg/dL in the lowest quartile while increasing by 0.10 mg/dL in the top quartile (P for difference=0.052).

CONCLUSIONOur results suggested that the balance between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids may optimize the cardiovascular benefits from dietary PUFAs.

C-Reactive Protein ; metabolism ; Cholesterol, HDL ; blood ; Cholesterol, LDL ; blood ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Erythrocyte Membrane ; metabolism ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; blood ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; blood ; Female ; Humans ; Lipids ; blood ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Triglycerides ; blood

This study is conducted to determine the effects of dietary levels of corn and tuna oils on the formation of preneoplastic lesions in die-thylnitrosamine (DEN) induced rat hepatocarcinogenesis. Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed 2.5, 5, 15, 25% (w/w) corn or tuna oils. Hepatocellular carcinogenesis was induced by DEN (200 mg/kg body weight) and two-thirds partial hepactectomy was carried out 3 weeks later and were sacrificed 8 weeks after DEN initiation. Tuna oil group showed smaller area of placental glutathione S-transferase (GST-P) positive foci than corn oil group. Corn oil group of 25% (w/w) showed the widest area of GST-P positive foci, and tuna oil group showed significantly smaller area of GST-P positive foci than corn oil in 25% (w/w) level but had no differences between oil levels. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) content was the highest in 25% (w/w) level of tuna oil group fed long chain and highly polyunsaturated fatty acids. Also serum gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) activities in 25% level of tuna oil group were significantly higher than by other levels. As oil contents increased, glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase) seems to decrease in corn oil groups but remained the same in tuna oil groups. Glutathione reductase (GR) activities were significantly higher in tuna oil group, and the higher the level of tuna oil, the higher GR activities. But Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities didn't seem to be influenced by levels and kind of dietary fats. Therefore, as oil levels increased, corn oil rich in n-6 fatty acids promoted carcinogenesis but tuna oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) of n-3 fatty acids suppressed. Although lipid peroxidation products were elevated in 25% (w/w) tuna oil group, GST-P positive foci didn't increase. Therefore preneoplastic lesions might be reduced through mediation of a lipid peroxidation process in tuna oil. As fat contents of tuna oil increased, elevated GR activities may give a rise to produce more reduced glutathione in order to protect against free radical attack, and high G6Pase activities remained the same and they contributed to membrane stability. So tuna oil diet seems to protect hepatocarcinogenesis.
Animals ; Carcinogenesis* ; Corn Oil ; Diet ; Dietary Fats ; Eicosapentaenoic Acid ; Fatty Acids, Omega-3 ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Fatty Acids, Unsaturated ; Glucose-6-Phosphatase ; Glutathione ; Glutathione Peroxidase ; Glutathione Reductase ; Glutathione Transferase ; Humans ; Lipid Peroxidation ; Male ; Membranes ; Negotiating ; Oils* ; Rats* ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Superoxide Dismutase ; Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances ; Tuna* ; Zea mays*

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the dietary intake of nutrients and food in postmenopausal Korean women. METHODS: One hundred eighty-nine postmenopausal women were recruited from 10 different hospitals in Seoul. The dietary intake of nutrients and foods was obtained using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, including 102 foods based on the Korean food pattern. RESULTS: Postmenopausal Korean women consumed energy and most of the nutrients adequately, except vitamin D, calcium, potassium, and folate. Intake of vitamin D and calcium was 60% and 78%, respectively, of the Korean Dietary Reference Intake (KDRI). Elderly postmenopausal women > 65 years of age consumed significantly less nutrients, such as fat, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids, fiber, vitamin A, vitamin B complex, calcium, potassium, iron, fruit, fish, and mushrooms. The intake of vitamin D, calcium, potassium, and folate, was less than the KDRI in both groups of postmenopausal women. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that the intake of vitamin D, folate, calcium, and potassium was less than the KDRI in postmenopausal women and the nutritional status of elderly postmenopausal women was worse than younger postmenopausal women.
Agaricales ; Aged ; Calcium ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Female ; Folic Acid ; Fruit ; Humans ; Iron ; Nutritional Status ; Potassium ; Vitamin A ; Vitamin B Complex ; Vitamin D ; Surveys and Questionnaires

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the dietary intake of nutrients and food in postmenopausal Korean women. METHODS: One hundred eighty-nine postmenopausal women were recruited from 10 different hospitals in Seoul. The dietary intake of nutrients and foods was obtained using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, including 102 foods based on the Korean food pattern. RESULTS: Postmenopausal Korean women consumed energy and most of the nutrients adequately, except vitamin D, calcium, potassium, and folate. Intake of vitamin D and calcium was 60% and 78%, respectively, of the Korean Dietary Reference Intake (KDRI). Elderly postmenopausal women > 65 years of age consumed significantly less nutrients, such as fat, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids, fiber, vitamin A, vitamin B complex, calcium, potassium, iron, fruit, fish, and mushrooms. The intake of vitamin D, calcium, potassium, and folate, was less than the KDRI in both groups of postmenopausal women. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that the intake of vitamin D, folate, calcium, and potassium was less than the KDRI in postmenopausal women and the nutritional status of elderly postmenopausal women was worse than younger postmenopausal women.
Agaricales ; Aged ; Calcium ; Fatty Acids, Omega-6 ; Female ; Folic Acid ; Fruit ; Humans ; Iron ; Nutritional Status ; Potassium ; Vitamin A ; Vitamin B Complex ; Vitamin D ; Surveys and Questionnaires