Introduction: Multi Drug Resistant Organisms (MDRO) are microorganisms that are resistant to one or more classes of antimicrobial agents, and these have become significant pathogens to contend with in the treatment of Healthcare Associated Infections. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the clinico-epidemiologic profile and outcome of pediatric patients with healthcare-associated multi-drug resistant gram-negative infections, and its antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Methodology: This was a retrospective study done on pediatric patients with gram negative healthcare associated MDRO sepsis compared to non-MDRO sepsis admitted at the ICU and pediatric wards of a tertiary government hospital from July 2015 to June 2016. Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the clinical characteristics of patients. Odds ratio and the corresponding 95% confidence interval from binary logistic regression was computed to determine significant predictors for the development of multi drug resistance. Outcome of patients with MDRO gram-negative infection was noted, as well as its antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Results: A total of 199 patients developed HAI, and 41% were identified to be gram negative MDR cases. Pediatric patients with healthcare associated infections due to MDR gram negative organisms had shorter hospital stay and a higher mortality rate of 78% compared to 41% among non MDR patients.The most commonly isolated gram negative organisms were Burkholderia cepacia, 38%; Klebsiella pneumoniae, 31%; and Acinetobacter baumanii, 18%; while the most common MDR gram negative isolates were Klebsiella pneumoniae, 65%; Acinetobacter aumanii, 22%; and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 7%. Significant predictors for MDRO were age (0-28 days old), ICU admission, intravascular catheterization and use of total parenteral nutrition. Conclusion Profile of pediatric patients with healthcare-associated multidrug resistant gram-negative infections were neonates admitted in the ICU with a shorter hospital stay and a high mortality rate. The identified risk factors for developing Multi Drug Resistant Gram Negative sepsis were age of 0-28 days, admission to ICU, intravascular catheterization and parenteral nutrition. Patients with gram-negative MDR infections have a high mortality rate and isolates are susceptible mostly to Colistin.
Drug Resistance, Multiple ; Cross Infection ; Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections

Background: Several studies have reported increasing prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection among patients with no predisposing factors. This paper aims to determine the clinical and epidemiologic profile of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) infection among children admitted at UP-PGH. Methodology: A retrospective review of the medical records of patients 0-to-18 years old with S. aureus isolate admitted at University of the Philippines-Philippine General Hospital (UP PGH) from January 1, 2007 to December 31, 2008 was conducted. S. aureus isolates were classified as methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA), CA-MRSA or healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA). Risk factors for MRSA acquisition were identified. Demographic data, site of infection, outcome, and antibiotic susceptibility patterns were compared. Results: S. aureus was isolated in 382 children. Medical records of 219 (57.33%) patients were available for review. Of the 219 patients, 40.64% had MSSA, 15.07% had CA-MRSA, and 44.3% had HA-MRSA isolates. The prevalence of CA-MRSA is seven per 1000 admissions. There was no statistical difference between the age, sex, outcome and the site of infection among the three groups. The most common source of isolates was exudates, followed by blood. There were statistically significant differences in the resistance patterns of S. aureus isolates, with MSSA and CA-MRSA having lower resistance rates (<10%) as compared to HAMRSA (>40%) and non-beta lactam antibiotics such as tetracycline, clindamycin, cotrimoxazole, gentamicin and vancomycin. Conclusion: This study showed that MRSA infection is no longer limited to patients with predisposing factors. The type of S. aureus infection cannot be predicted based on clinical and demographic profile of patients. Based on the susceptibility patterns in this study, CA-MRSA may be treated with tetracycline, clindamycin, cotrimoxazole, gentamicin and vancomycin.
Human ; Male ; Female ; Adolescent ; Child ; Child Preschool ; Infant ; Infant Newborn ; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ; TETRACYCLINE ; CLINDAMYCIN ; TRIMETHOPRIM-SULFAMETHOXAZOLE COMBINATION ; GENTAMICINS ; VANCOMYCIN

This article reviews recent data on meningococcal disease and carriage in the Philippines. It aims to provide information on the epidemiology of meningococcal disease, its carriage, data on prevention, and the impact of vaccination on disease and carriage. The World Health Organization considers the Philippines as having low endemicity for meningococcal disease. However, current data underestimates the true burden in the country due to many factors. In recent years, data from the Philippines show a high case-fatality rate since only the septicemic form is being reported. Studies on asymptomatic meningococcal carriage rates are sparse, with one study by Gonzales, et al. investigating the prevalence of meningococcal nasopharyngeal carriage in Filipinos aged 5-24 years old living in an urban setting. The study showed that the overall prevalence of carriage was 3.7% and was highest (9%) among the 10-14 age group. Serogroup B was the most common isolate. Effective meningococcal vaccines are available. Although not included in the National Immunization Program, medical societies recommend giving vaccines to individuals at high risk of infection. Data on local epidemiology accounting for the disease and asymptomatic carriage are important to strengthen future programs on immunization and prevention of meningococcal disease.
Meningococcal Infections ; Meningococcal Vaccines

Parapneumonic effusions frequently occur as complications of pneumonia. Data from developing countries is limited. The purpose of this paper is to review the epidemiological and clinical profile of parapneumonic effusions among children admitted in a tertiary government hospital. Methodology: Medical records of 72 children diagnosed with parapneumonic effusions from 2005-to-2009 were obtained. Demography, clinical presentations, diagnostics, treatment modalities, outcomes, etiology and antibiotic susceptibilities were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Comparison of purulent effusion and empyema was done using parametric or non-parametric statistics, accordingly. Results: There were 106 children discharged with a diagnosis of parapneumonic effusion. Of the 96 medical records available, 72 patients fulfilled the criteria for parapneumonic effusions. Only 53 patients submitted pleural fluid for analysis: 29 cases were empyema, while 24 cases were purulent effusion; mean age was 9.66 years. Fever (90.28%), cough (69.44%), and dyspnea (66.67%) were the most common clinical presentations. Forty-four patients underwent thoracentesis while 37 children had closed-tube thoracostomy. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA) was the most commonly isolated organism from the pleural fluid cultures (9.26%) and blood cultures (6.25%). Patients with purulent effusion were treated with a combination of antibiotics and anti-TB meds (75%).Majority of patients with empyema were treated with antibiotics alone (79.31%). Earlier improvement and shorter hospital stay were observed among patients with purulent effusion. Conclusion: Parapneumonic effusions occurred in 6.80% of hospitalized children with pneumonia; 54.72% of which were empyema and 45.28% were purulent effusion. MRSA was the most commonly isolated organism. Chest imaging, pleural fluid analysis and cultures, and blood cultures were important diagnostic procedures. The mainstays of treatment were medical, surgical or both, depending on the severity of effusion. Prompt diagnosis and management could account for favorable clinical outcomes.
Adolescent ; Child ; Child Preschool ; Infant ; Infant Newborn ; PNEUMONIA ; EMPYEMA ; PLEURAL EFFUSION

Background: Pulmonary TB in children remains to be a burden in the Philippines. Diagnosis remains to be a challenge for pediatricians due to its paucibacillary nature, difficulty in obtaining specimens, cost of test as well as the varied sensitivity of the different tests available. Gastric aspirate (GA), commonly used for bacteriological diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) in children, involves an invasive procedure that may cause discomfort and sometimes require admission. Nasopharyngeal aspirate (NPA), on the other hand, can be easily and non-invasively obtained but is currently not a recommended specimen for testing for PTB. Objectives: This study aims to determine the accuracy of NPA GeneXpert in diagnosing PTB among pediatric patients 0-18 years old with presumptive TB using GA GeneXpert as the initial screening test and GA TB culture as gold standard. Methodology: This prospective, cross-sectional diagnostic study involved collection of single NPA and GA specimens for GeneXpert and TB culture in 100 patients with presumptive PTB seen at a tertiary government hospital in the Philippines. Results: Of the one hundred pediatric patients (mean age 6 ± 5.63 years) enrolled, 50 were clinically diagnosed PTB, 16 bacteriologically-confirmed and 34 were not PTB disease. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive values with 95% confidence intervals of the NPA GeneXpert were determined compared to GA GeneXpert and GA culture. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values of the NPA GeneXpert compared to GA GeneXpert were 70%, 96.67%, 70% and 96.67%, respectively. While NPA GeneXpert compared to GA TB culture were 40%,91.58%, 20% and 96.67%, respectively. Conclusion GeneXpert testing on a single NPA specimen is a highly specific and rapid test that can be used to diagnose PTB in pediatric patients, particularly where gastric aspiration or mycobacterial culture is not feasible.
Tuberculosis, Pulmonary

Objective: This study aimed to validate the modified Faine’s criteria (Parts A and B) proposed by Brato in the early diagnosis of leptospirosis in children using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) as gold standard. Methodology: This diagnostic validity study was conducted at the Philippine General Hospital. It included all pediatric patients who were admitted between September 2009 to December 2010 and who satisfied the presumptive and suggestive criteria in the diagnosis of leptospirosis based on the modified Faine’s criteria. A fourfold or greater rise in paired MAT titers was used as the gold standard. Calculations for sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and likelihood ratios of positive and negative tests were computed. Results Thirty-three patients satisfied the diagnosis of leptospirosis based on the criteria; however, only 20 of these had paired MAT titers and were included. The modified Faine’s criteria had a sensitivity of 60%, specificity of 73%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 43%, negative predictive value (NPV) of 85%, positive likelihood ratio of 2 and negative likelihood ratio of 0.4 . Modifying the clinical criteria by revision of the point allocation to create a “Pediatric Locally Modified Criteria” increased the sensitivity to 80%, PPV to 50%, NPV to 92%, positive likelihood ratio to 3 and negative likelihood ratio to 0.3. Conclusion The Modified Faine’s criteria had poor sensitivity and low positive predictive value and cannot be recommended as a screening test for the early diagnosis of leptospirosis in children. A proposed modification of the clinical criteria for local application increased diagnostic accuracy but must be further validated in a larger number of pediatric patients in the Philippines.
Leptospirosis

Objective: To determine the clinical profile, microbiology, management, and outcome of pediatric brain abscess at a tertiary hospital in the Philippines from 2012 to 2016. Methods: A retrospective study and review of medical records of 50 patients aged 18 years old and below diagnosed with brain abscess from 2012 to 2016 was performed. Results: Majority of patients affected were 10 years old and below (74%), with no gender predilection, and mostly underweight/wasted (68%). Coverage for common vaccine-preventable pathogens was low (38% for H. influenzae type b, 2% for S. pneumoniae). Most common signs and symptoms on admission were fever (62%), vomiting (50%), and headache (50%). The top pre-disposing condition was congenital heart disease (46%), mostly Tetralogy of Fallot (33%). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was isolated in 38%) of cases. Sterile cultures comprised 68% of cases. There were two cases of tuberculous abscess. Empiric antibiotics administered for patients seen in 2012 were penicillin G and chloramphenicol, with a shift to a third-generation cephalosporin and metronidazole in the succeeding years. Aspiration with or without drainage was performed in majority of cases (85%). Six underwent complete excision and had a shorter mean length of stay of 57 days, and a lower morbidity rate of 17% with no mortalities. The overall mean length of hospital stay was 65 days. Residual neurologic deficit was observed in 28%, mostly extremity weakness. Mortality rate was 6.8%. No statistical association was found between a predisposing condition and affectation of a particular area of the brain using the Fisher exact test. Conclusion There should be a high index of suspicion for brain abscess among patients with pre-disposing conditions (i.e. paracranial infection, cyanotic congenital heart disease) presenting with fever, headache, and vomiting. Common etiologic agents in this study were MRSA and Enterococcus. The isolates were sensitive to the antibiotics recommended for empiric therapy, particularly parenteral third generation cephalosporin + metronidazole for 6 to 8 weeks. Patients with sterile cultures were also continued on this regimen. With the high resistance rates to oxacillin, vancomycin should be considered for abscesses arising from paracranial infections and for those with breaks in the skull post-trauma. There was an overall reduction in mortality due to improved imaging studies andidentification of pathogens for definitive treatment, as well as improved surgical techniques over time. A considerable number of affected children however had neurologic deficits upon discharge.
Length of Stay ; Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Background: Intraventricular antimicrobial therapy (IVT), defined as the direct installation of antimicrobial agents into the lateral ventricles has been utilized as the last therapeutic option for the treatment of multidrug-resistant ventriculitis. The aim of this case series is to report our institution’s experience with IVT in pediatric patients with ventriculitis. Material and Methods: Retrospective chart review was done. The demographic data, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture isolates, treatment regimens, and clinical outcomes of these patients were collected and described. Results: Between 2016 to 2018, seven (7) pediatric patients diagnosed with ventriculitis caused by multidrug-resistant organisms underwent intraventricular antimicrobial therapy in combination with intravenous therapy. The median age was 1 year (range 1 month to 17 years old, mean: 4.4 years). Fifty-seven (57) percent of the patients were females. The isolated pathogens were Acinetobacter baumannii MDRO (n = 3), Klebsiella pneumoniae MDRO (n = 2), Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (n = 1), and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (n = 2).One patient had mixed isolates on CSF culture (Acinetobacter baumannii and MRSE). The antimicrobial agents for IVT used were colistin (n = 4), vancomycin (n = 2), and gentamicin (n = 1). The mean time to initiation of intraventricular therapy from the diagnosis of ventriculitis was 19 days. The mean duration of IVT therapy was 15 days. The survival rate was 57%. Conclusion Ventriculitis caused by drug-resistant organisms is an emerging concern. Optimal therapy is not yet established and experience with IVT is limited. This series showed that there were no adverse effects related to IVT thus it may be considered an option for MDRO ventriculitis. Gram negative organisms are more common causes of ventriculitis in our institution.
Acinetobacter baumannii ; Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Objective: The use of antimicrobial prophylaxis to prevent surgical site infections (SSI) is well established. This study examined the association of adherence to antimicrobial prophylaxis for clean neurosurgeries with post-operative surgical site infection (SSI) rates. Methods: A retrospective descriptive study was conducted at the Philippine General Hospital (PGH) among pediatric patients who underwent clean neurosurgical procedures between January 1, 2018 – December 31, 2019. The outcome measured was the development of SSI. Univariate and multivariate analysis was performed to show the association of risk factors with SSI. Compliance to existing antibiotic prophylaxis recommendation was assessed. Results: One hundred eighty-nine (189) medical charts were reviewed. Overall prevalence of SSI was 9.5% and fever was the most common initial symptom of SSI. Staphylococcus species was identified from cultures of surgical sites, consistent with existing literature, however gram-negative organisms including multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) were noted. All cases received prophylactic antibiotics, but adherence to all parameters (antimicrobial choice, dose, timing, route, re-dosing and duration of prophylaxis) was low at 7.9%. Appropriate antibiotics were prescribed in only 15.9% and antibiotics were discontinued beyond 24 hours post-surgery in 45.5% of cases. Patients who received a regimen fully compliant with antimicrobial prophylaxis recommendations did not develop SSI. Conclusion Adherence to existing antimicrobial prophylaxis protocol for neurosurgeries is low at 7.9%. Patients who received a regimen fully compliant with the recommendations did not develop SSI. Interventions to improve compliance to antimicrobial prophylaxis guidelines are needed.
Surgical Wound Infection